Project Activity Sequencing Outputs

Project activity sequencing consists of the methods and tools used to set the stage for the most efficient and trouble-free project plan. Project activity sequencing has several outputs, including the project network diagram and activity lists.

The project network diagram
One output that results from activity sequencing is the project network diagram. This diagram may be produced manually or on a computer.

The project network diagram includes full project details, including clear, concise, self-explanatory names for all project activities.

Full project details include "hammock activities" as well. For example, an auto parts manufacturer inspects all the parts it produces. Rather than repeat the inspect activity in the project network diagram, the manufacturing company rolls all inspection into a single summary or hammock activity.

Overall start and finish dates are then associated with the single hammock activity. One or more summary or hammock activities often make up part of full project details.

The project network diagram includes a summary narrative. The summary narrative outlines the basic activity sequencing approach used in the network. The summary narrative provides details about the use of dependencies, sequencing assumptions and leads and lags.

The summary narrative outlines how dependencies are included in the project, how outside dependencies will be handled, and which dependencies are mandatory or optional.

The summary narrative also includes assumptions about sequencing. It may be assumed, for example, that testing can start after 25 percent of development has taken place.

In addition to assumption, the summary narrative outlines how leads and lags will be handled. In a finish-to-start relationship, an activity with a lead of five days may start five days before its predecessor has finished. An activity with a lag of five days cannot start until five days after its predecessor activity has finished.

Finally, the project network diagram contains a description of unusual sequencing. Unusual sequences occur in a network to allow for things like client preferences or specific resource availability. For example, in setting up a computer network, it may seem logical to configure the servers before configuring the workstations. The customer, however, may stipulate that employees are to begin training and work on their workstations immediately. As a result, the configure workstations activity takes place in the project network diagram before the configure servers activity.

Activity list updates
The second output from activity sequencing is activity list updates. Network diagram preparation may reveal instances where an activity must be divided or redefined in order to diagram the correct relationships.

As an example, consider the initial activity list for installing a computer network. Attempts to construct a network for this project reveal that there is overlap between the build and test activities. Computer tower components must be tested at intermediary intervals.

If the build and test activities have been defined at too high a level, the sequencing diagram may not show this overlap. The solution is to break the build and test activities down into their component parts, and indicate their dependencies on other activities. Based on this, a new project network diagram can be constructed.

The outputs from activity sequencing are the project network diagram and the activity list. These two outputs are important components in the creation of the project schedule. The project network diagram reflects project activities and their dependencies. After initially diagramming the network, the activity list may remain the same or change based on the diagram.

Conditions for Using a Network Diagramming Template

Think about building a house when all the pieces are already prepared. You're only responsible for assembling the parts and making minor adjustments. Once you build the first house, you can use the pattern to build others.

Network diagram templates, like prefabricated houses, are standardized, pre-built components. They allow you to use successful past projects as models for the current project and schedule planning activities. Using network diagram templates helps you improve the accuracy of activity sequencing by highlighting successful practices from past projects.

Network diagram templates help you complete your work more quickly because much of the work has already been done for you. Using the successful elements from past projects also saves money on the overall current project.

Finding similarities between past and current projects is extremely helpful in planning and activity sequencing. It is appropriate to use network diagram templates as a tool for activity sequencing, when there are similarities between overall projects and among subprojects in larger projects.

• Similarities between projects - The first situation in which you should consider using network diagram templates as a tool for activity sequencing is when similarities between two separate projects are identified. Some similarities between projects include phases and deliverables. Effective network diagram templates cover the entire project and are especially useful when the past and current projects share a common structure.
  
  Consider the following example. Jack, the training director for a large engineering firm, is responsible for the continued development of in-house training courses. Since each training course has the same design cycle, Jack is able to use network diagram templates for activity sequencing of these internal courses.
  

• Similarities between subprojects - The second situation in which network diagram templates are useful is when there are similar features within a single project. These features are often called subprojects or subnets. Subnet templates are useful for projects where there are several identical features within the work breakdown structure. After completing a network diagram for the first subnet, you can use it as a template for other components within the same project.
  
  It is best to use subnet diagram templates with projects that have repetitive phases, such as floors in a high-rise building, clinical trials in pharmaceutical research, or program modules in a software project.
  

Network diagram templates can help you save time by reducing the duplication of effort where similarities between projects and subprojects exist. Understanding when to use diagramming templates will allow you to reach project goals more quickly an

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Conditional Diagramming Method (CDM)

A third technique for constructing network diagrams is the conditional diagramming method (CDM).

Like other diagramming methods, the CDM uses nodes and arrows to represent the activities and dependencies in a project network. However, this method is distinguishable from other diagramming techniques by its loops and conditional branches.

Loops seen in the CDM indicate the repetition of activities in the activity network.

Conditional branches indicate options in a CDM diagram. The truth or falsity of a condition determines whether contingent activities will happen next.

For example, one phase of auto manufacturing involves painting the auto body. The activities that make up this phase may be outlined in the CDM diagram. In this case, the pass or fail condition of the painted auto body determines whether the auto body is delivered or redone. Delivering the auto body or redoing it are conditional branches or options dependent on the outcome of the pass/fail test.

In project management, the diagramming technique known as Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique (GERT) uses the CDM.

The conditional diagramming method is a technique that represents a network and shows the repeating and conditional activities in the project. This technique is valuable for helping you visualize and plan an activity's schedule. Using the CDM will help you to stay in control of the schedule which, in turn, will increase your chances of a successful project.

Arrow Diagramming Method (ADM)

Every project consists of a number of tasks which must be coordinated and scheduled to meet project goals and deadlines. A project planning network is a graphical representation of the overall project. Its graphical elements indicate activity duration and "precedence relationships," the order in which project tasks must be performed.

Various techniques exist for constructing network diagrams. One popular technique is the arrow diagramming method (ADM). The ADM, also known as the activity-on-arrow (AOA) network, uses arrows to represent activities and nodes to show dependencies.

In the ADM, activities are connected at points called nodes. A node preceding an activity arrow is the start event for that activity. A node following an activity arrow is the end event for that activity.

The ADM uses only finish-to-start (FS) activity dependencies. This means that activity A must finish before activity B can begin.

The first thing to remember when using the ADM is that an activity can't be represented by more than one arrow in the network diagram. Suppose activity A precedes two activities in a network. To avoid duplicating activity A on the diagram, you would need to follow one arrow representing activity A by an end node. Then follow this end node for A by the two successor activities, B and C.

The second thing to remember is that no two activities can have the same begin and end nodes. Instead, if two activities are related or dependent, you can use a "dummy" activity to show the relationship. A dummy uses no resources and is represented by a dashed arrow.

In addition to activities and dependencies, the ADM shows the early and late schedules for the project. Both the early time (TE) and the late time (TL) for an event appear on the event node.

The ADM also allows project managers to specify activity scheduling flexibility by calculating "float." Float is the amount of time available to complete an activity without affecting project duration. To determine a project activity's float, or slack, you would calculate the difference between the activity's late and early schedule times.

Once float has been determined for each event in the network, it is possible to find the critical path through that network. The critical path shows the earliest possible completion time of the entire project. To find the critical path in an AOA network diagram, you would follow the path that connects all events with zero float since activities with a positive float are, of necessity, not on the critical path.

The arrow diagramming method is a method used to construct network diagrams. Arrow diagramming is said to be "event-oriented" because the arrows represent activities. Arrow diagramming reveals the network sequence and timing of activities which is useful in managing the project's schedule.

Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM)

A project is a series of interconnected activities that can be represented by the project network diagram. Various techniques exist for constructing network diagrams. One of the most common is the precedence diagramming method (PDM).

The PDM uses nodes to represent project activities and connecting arrows to show activity dependencies. This technique is also called the activity-on-node (AON) network approach.

To construct a network diagram, you need to consider four types of precedence relationships: finish-to-start (FS), start-to-start (SS), start-to-finish (SF), and finish-to-finish (FF).

• finish-to-start (FS)
  The FS relationship is one in which activity A must finish before activity B can begin. This is the most commonly used type of precedence relationship.
  

• start-to-start (SS)
  The SS relationship is one in which activity A must start before activity B can start. As an example, let activity A be compiling a phone list, and Activity B be calling the people on the list. In this example, compiling the phone list (A) must start before calling the people on the list (B) can start.
  

• start-to-finish (SF)
  The SF relationship is one in which activity A must start before activity B can finish. Let activity A be breathing on one's own. Let activity B be breathing with the aid of a respirator. Breathing on one's own must start (A) before breathing with the aid of a respirator (B) can finish.
  

• finish-to-finish (FF)
  The FF relationship is one in which activity A must finish before activity B can finish. Let activity A be a telemarketing department compiling a phone list. Let activity B be calling the people on the list. Compiling the phone list (A) must finish before calling the people on the list (B) can finish.
  

To convey as much information as clearly as possible, project network diagrams also include early and late schedules.

• the early schedule
  The early schedule is made up of the earliest start (ES) and earliest finish (EF) times. In a project, the ES for an activity is the earliest possible time that the activity can begin. The EF is the earliest possible time that the activity can end.
  
  You can determine the ES for an activity by looking at its predecessors. No predecessors means that the ES is day one, the beginning of the project. One predecessor means that the ES for the activity is dependent on the EF of the predecessor. More than one predecessor means that the ES of the activity depends on the maximum of the EF times of the predecessor activities.
  

• the late schedule
  The late schedule consists of the latest start (LS) and latest finish (LF) times. In a project, the LS and LF are the latest times that an activity can begin and end without causing project delay.
  
  You can calculate the LS and the LF times by using the early schedule. First, set the LF time of the last activity to the EF time of the same activity. Likewise, you can determine the LF time of all immediate predecessor activities by choosing the maximum of the EF times on all predecessor nodes.
  

Once the early and late schedules are in place, you can determine a float for an activity by taking the difference, LF minus EF.

LF - EF = LS - ES

The activity has no float if this number is zero. Float allows for some flexibility in project management and can change as the project progresses.
In a project network diagram, the series of activities that determines the earliest possible completion of the project is called the critical path. The critical path is usually defined as those activities for which float is zero.

To determine the critical path, begin with the first activity in the project. Look at its successors. Compare the successors' float values. Select the one with zero float. This is the second activity on the critical path.

Continue from the second activity on the critical path and compare the float for its successors. Select the activity that has zero float and include it in the critical path.

Continue this process to the final activity for a complete critical path. Ultimately, a project cannot finish any sooner than the time it takes to complete the activities on the critical path.

The PDM represents a project as a network of interrelated activities. The PDM is a way to prepare project activities for scheduling by organizing them in terms of the project's relationships, early and late schedules, float, and critical path. In this way, the PDM allows you to arrive at a realistic, workable project schedule.

The Inputs of Project Activity Sequencing

To successfully plan a project, you have to arrive at an appropriate sequence for the project activities. This process, called "activity sequencing" requires that you identify the inputs of project activity sequencing.

There are a number of inputs that influence project activity sequencing, including: the activity list, product description, mandatory dependencies, discretionary dependencies, external dependencies, and milestones.

• the activity list
  The activity list is a complete list of all project activities. These activities need to be analyzed and organized into a workable sequence so that the project can be completed in an optimal time frame.
  
  If, for example, a computer and data services company is building a network, the deliverables might be decomposed into the following activities:
  
  - configure mail server
  - configure application server
  - configure file server
  - configure print server
  - configure work stations
  - configure the router
  - connect hub
  - run cabling
  - test network
  
  This activity list must now be analyzed for dependencies and organized for completion.
  

• product description
  The second factor that influences activity sequencing is the product description. The product description documents the characteristics of the product or service that the project was undertaken to create. Product characteristics affect activity sequencing. These effects are apparent in the activity list. A review of the product description helps ensure project accuracy.
  
  Consider the example of the computer and data services company that is building a network. Suppose that a review of the product description indicates that the client only requested the configured servers, a configured router, and cabling. The client plans to have in-house technical support connect the hub, run the cabling, and test the network once it is in place.
  
  As a result of reviewing the product description, the computer and data services company supplying the network identifies an inaccuracy in its activity list. A revision of the list and resequencing of activities are necessary.
  

• mandatory dependencies
  The third, fourth, and fifth factors that affect activity sequencing fall under the heading of dependencies. The three types of dependencies that affect activity sequencing are mandatory, discretionary, and external.
  
  A mandatory dependency is one that is inherent in the nature of the work being done. Also known as hard logic, this dependency involves physical limitations.
  
  Take a look at a mandatory dependency in the context of building a computer network. The activities include configuring the network components, running cabling, and testing the network. One mandatory dependency that exists is between the test network activity and the rest of the project activities.
  
  The test network activity can't be done until the network is in place. This means that all other activities must be completed first. There is a mandatory dependency between the test network activity and all other activities associated with this project.
  

• discretionary dependencies
  Also known as preferred, preferential, or soft logic, this dependency is defined by the project management team based on established practices in an application area or a specific desired sequence.
  
  In the example of building a computer network, a discretionary dependency may exist. The client company wants its employees to begin working as soon as possible. To meet with this requirement, the project management team decides that configuring the workstations should be the first activity in the sequence.
  
  Other activities could replace this activity as the first in the project. In this case, however, the project management team decides that configuring the workstations is the preferred starting point.
  

• external dependencies
  An external dependency is one that involves a relationship between project and non-project activities. To understand this type of dependency, consider again, the example of building a network. The computer and data services company purchases some of its network components from a supplier. This creates an external dependency. The computer and data services company can't provide its service until it has all the parts it requires. Purchasing components from a supplier is an example of an external dependency.
  

• milestones
  Milestones are the final input of activity sequencing. Milestones are significant events or stages in the development of a project. Some examples of common project milestones are:
  
  - initial research
  - concept development
  - design completion
  - prototype development
  - quality testing
  - final acceptance
  
  Milestones act as control points in long projects that have several work packages and smaller tasks. For example, the computer and data services company grouped the project deliverables to identify major project milestones. The milestones for the network project are: finalizing the product description; installing and configuring network hardware components; and testing network capabilities.
  
  Milestones need to be an input to activity sequencing to assure that the project meets all of the necessary requirements. It is important to identify milestones so that you can effectively measure the progress of your project.
  

Optimizing the sequence of project activities can help you to avoid costly delays and rework. When sequencing, you need to consider your activity list, product description, dependencies and milestones. By factoring these inputs into the sequencing equation, you will arrive at a more logical sequence, one that will allow you to sail through project development and implementation with fewer surprises and mistakes.

The Outputs of Project Activity Definition

Taking the time to clearly define project activities reduces the chance for costly project delays. The process of defining project activities results in new or revised project documents or documentable items. These are the outputs of the activity definition phase of the project.

In any given project, there are three main outputs of activity definition: the activity list; supporting detail and WBS updates.

• the activity list
  The first and most obvious output of activity definition is the activity list. The activity list results from using the WBS to decompose the project into a series of activities to be performed. To ensure completeness and adherence to project scope, the activity list should be developed and organized as an extension of the Work Breakdown Schedule (WBS).
  

• supporting detail
  The second output of activity definition is supporting detail. Once an activity is defined, the next step is to clarify how it should be performed. To do this, you need to take into account project assumptions and constraints.
  
  Consider the example of Telecom Corporation's VPN project. The development of a new corporate web site is going on at the same time as the VPN project. The assumption that the web site development project uses standard technologies compatible with the VPN project must be documented in the supporting detail.
  
  The constraints imposed by the existing client infrastructure affect project activities and must be included in the supporting detail.
  

• Work Breakdown Schedule (WBS) updates
  The third and final output of project activity definition are WBS updates. The WBS helps identify which activities to include in a project. If a missing deliverable is identified during the activity definition process, you must update the WBS to include that deliverable. You should also update the scope statement since it is a related document that includes a list of the project deliverables. Any changes in the deliverables must be reflected in the WBS and related documentation.
  

The outputs from activity definition include the activity list, supporting detail, and WBS updates. These outputs serve as important inputs to the next task required of a project management team—activity sequencing.

Project Decomposition and Templates

To complete any task, you need to know what tools are at your disposal. Project managers who are engaged in defining project activities use two main tools to accomplish this task: decomposition and templates.

Decomposition
Decomposition means breaking a project deliverable down into a list of achievable activities.

Telecom Corp. is a telecommunications company. One service that it provides to its clients is the virtual private network (VPN). VPN project deliverables include a firewall, routers, encryptors, Internet service, IP backbone, and secure remote access.

The last deliverable could be decomposed into the following three activities:

1. provide remote access
2. provide encryption key
3. authenticate users

After dividing a deliverable into potential activities, the team must evaluate each activity using the following six criteria.

1. Status is measurable.
2. Sign of completion is visible.
3. Start and end conditions are clearly defined.
4. Time and cost are easily estimated.
5. Duration has acceptable limits.
6. Work assignments are independent.

The first criterion to consider is whether the activity's status is measurable. For example, one deliverable in a Telecom Corp. VPN project is secure remote access. One activity defined for this deliverable is authenticating users, and it is measurable. When half the users have working login IDs and passwords, the activity is fifty percent complete.
Whether there is a visible sign that the activity is complete is the second criterion. This sign could be the delivery of a document or product, or it could be the manager's signature. In the Telecom Corp. example, the visible sign that users have been authenticated to the network is when all users can access the network with a functional user password.

The third criterion to use is whether an activity has clearly defined start and end conditions. Once the beginning event has occurred, work may begin on the activity and continue to a visible sign of completion. For Telecom Corp., the authentication activity should only begin when the network is in place. The authentication activity is clearly finished only when the users are able to use their login IDs and passwords to access the VPN.

Whether activity time and cost can be easily estimated is the fourth criterion to consider. This is accomplished by estimating the time and cost of a project's activities. In the Telecom Corp. example of authenticating users to the VPN, time can be estimated at a few days.

The fifth criterion to examine is whether an activity's duration is within acceptable limits. Although there is no set rule on this, projects should avoid activities with long durations. Delays in such activities can create serious scheduling problems. In evaluating Telecom Corp.'s authentication activity, duration can be estimated at a few days. Delays here would not create huge project delays or large-scale scheduling problems. The authentication activity then meets this fifth criterion.

The final criterion is an activity's level of independence from other project activities. Independence in an activity means that once work has begun on the activity, it may continue without interruption. For example, once Telecom Corp.'s authentication activity begins, it is not dependent upon any other project activities for completion.

Templates
The second tool a project manager and team uses to define project activities is a template. A partial or total activity list, or WBS from a previous project, can be used as a template for a current project. Using templates simplifies project activity definition and reduces project costs by improving team efficiency.

To define project activities, project managers use decomposition and templates. Decomposition means breaking project deliverables into achievable activities. A template is a partial or total WBS, or activity list defined in a previous project, which can be used in a current project.

The Inputs to Project Activity Definition

When a project reaches the activity definition phase, certain documents or documentable items have already been established. These "inputs to activity definition" include the Work Breakdown Schedule (WBS), scope statement, historical informaiton, constraints, assumptions, and expert judgment.

• Work Breakdown Schedule (WBS)
  One of the principle inputs to activity definition is the WBS. This document defines project tasks and deliverables.
  

• scope statement
  The scope statement refers directly to project justification, project objectives, project deliverables, and project product description.
  

• historical information
  Historical information is another important input to activity definition. Consider activities required on previous, similar projects in defining current project activities. After all, if something works, why not repeat it?
  

• constraints
  Constraints are also an input to project activity definition. A constraint is anything that can limit the project management team's options.
  

• assumptions
  Assumptions are the fourth input to activity definition. For planning purposes, assumptions are factors that are considered to be true. Over the course of the project, these factors may turn out to be true or false.
  
  Assumptions always carry a degree of risk. For example, if assumptions about materials or costs are false, a project may be delayed or exceed its budget.
  

• expert judgment
  The final input to activity definition is expert judgment. Expert judgment is advice from people with specialized knowledge or training that directly relates to your project. Some sources of expert judgment are:
  

experienced employees in the organization
outside consultants
professional associations
industry watch groups.

The inputs to activity definition are an important part of any project. These documents and documentable items help the project manager and team to determine project deliverables and the tools and techniques needed to achieve the deliverables.

What Are the Outputs of Scope Change Control?

How do you know if you have successfully conducted the scope change control process? The success of the scope change control process will be demonstrated by the accuracy and completeness of what it produces—its outputs, which are:

• approved scope changes
• corrective action
• lessons learned
• adjusted baseline

Scope changes are any modifications to the agreed-upon project scope as defined by the approved work breakdown structure. These changes often require adjustments to cost, time, or project. When the changes occur, project managers need to update planning documents and notify stakeholders as appropriate. These changes can be minor, such as making small changes to project limits or eliminating work that is not required, or major, such as adding work that was not in the original project plan or changing the project design.

Approved scope changes usually lead to corrective action. In general, corrective action is anything done to bring expected future project performance in line with the project plan. It often requires a root-cause analysis to identify the cause of the variances. Once you identify the cause of the variance, you or your team members can take appropriate corrective action.

Examples of corrective actions include narrowing the project scope to deliver the work results on budget or on time and adjusting resources by adding project team members or substituting project supplies.

Have you ever finished a project and wished you had done something differently? One of the outputs from scope change control is lessons learned. You can keep information about closed-out projects and use it to save time and money on future endeavors. The lessons learned during scope change control should become part of a project's historical database.

As you document the lessons learned, you could include the main causes of cost or schedule variances, the reasons behind the corrective action chosen, and any actions you will perform differently in future projects.

The final output from scope change control is an adjusted baseline. A baseline is the original approved plan for the project or particular project phase. On a project, there are often several separate baselines, such as the cost baseline, the schedule baseline, or the performance measurement baseline. Depending on the nature of the scope change, the corresponding baseline document may need to be revised or reissued to reflect the approved change. The adjusted baseline becomes the basis for determining future changes.

Approved scope changes, corrective actions, lessons learned, and adjusted baseline are the outputs of the scope change control process. To ensure your project's success, you will want to be certain these important and necessary elements are not overlooked and become part of the project process and final report.

Measuring the Impact of Approved Project Changes

If you are familiar with performance measurement techniques, you know that one of them—earned value—is used to forecast estimates before work is started. Did you know you could also use it to forecast the effect of a project change?

When a change is verified, the work must be incorporated into the project plan, which usually increases the cost and lengthens the schedule. As the work for the change progresses, earned value (EV) analysis can be used to forecast how the change will affect the project completion estimates for budget and schedule. This will allow the project manager to better control the change.

• Planned value (PV) - is the approved cost estimate for a change during a specific period of time. It answers the questions: "How much will the work for the change for this time period cost?" and "How much work should be done by now?"

• Actual cost (AC) - is the real amount it costs to perform the change in a given time period. It answers the question: "How much has it cost for the work on the change so far?"

• Earned value (EV) - is the value of the work actually completed on a change in a given time period. It answers the question: "How much work is done and what was the original budget to complete that work?"

To use EV analysis to measure the performance associated with the change and the project as a whole, you will need to calculate two performance indicators:

• schedule performance index (SPI)
• cost performance index (CPI)

The SPI is the ratio of earned value of the accepted change to the planned cost of the change at the present point in time. It indicates how the change is affecting the schedule right now. To calculate the SPI, divide the earned value by the planned value.
Project managers can use the information resulting from the SPI calculations to make changes to the final product delivery schedule.

• If SPI is equal to 1.0 - no changes to schedule are necessary.
• If SPI is greater than 1.0 - project will finish ahead of schedule.
• If SPI is less than 1.0 - additional days will be needed to complete the project.

The EV for Carla's textile project is $188,000 and the PV is $200,000. To calculate the schedule performance index for her project, Carla divides the EV of the change, $188,000, by the PV of the change, 200,000, to equal 0.94. Since the result is less than 1.0, Carla will need to add additional days to her project schedule because of the change.

Another factor that you must look at when a change has been accepted is how the change will affect the final cost, or cost upon completion, of the project. To do so, calculate the cost performance index (CPI). It divides the sum of all individual EV budgets by the sum of all AC budgets. When calculating CPI, round your answer to the first decimal place.

CPI = Total of EV/ Total of AC

The results of the SPI and CPI are then used to forecast the project completion estimates for the changed project.

Earned value analysis provides a way to measure project performance and determine where your project is heading after the approval of a change to the project. This helps project managers to determine if the finished project will be on time and within budget.

Should You Approve, Endorse or Reject a Change Request?

Knowing how to manage scope changes can make the difference between project success and failure. To increase your chance of success, you need a technique that enables you to track and manage changes as they occur.

Some changes to project scope, such as legislative changes or new safety standards, are mandatory. By definition, mandatory changes must be implemented. Other requests for changes are not mandatory but may be beneficial. If implemented, these changes can impact the project schedule, budget, or both, so they must be effectively managed.

Scope change control defines the procedures by which the project scope may be changed. It includes the paperwork, tracking systems, and approvals necessary for authorizing changes.

Before authorizing changes, a project manager must:

1. assess the impact of the requested change
2. choose the appropriate status for the change request

Since the opportunity to add value decreases and the cost of change increases as project work progresses, you need to consider the work effort and the associated cost when assessing the impact of proposed scope changes.
The more time a scope change requires, the more it will affect the project budget. You need to assess the length of time, or work effort, it will take to implement the proposed change.

The most common method for calculating the work effort in relation to a specific scope change request is the resource profiling method. The resource profiling method uses the Baseline Effort, Skill Factor, Work Interruption Factor, and Part-time Effect to calculate Normalized Effort (NE)—a real-world estimate of work effort.

• Baseline Effort (BE) - The BE assumes that the task will be worked on full-time, without interruption, by a team member with a high level of technical skill and knowledge. To determine the BE, determine the ideal length of time it will take to complete the task in a perfect world.

• Skill Factor (SF) - The SF represents the proficiencies of the team members who will complete the proposed work. A value of one indicates expert knowledge in the area. A value of two indicates a proficient and acceptable skill level. A value of three indicates little or no knowledge.

• Work Interruption Factor (WIF) - The WIF takes into account reasons for temporary work stoppage. The most common type of interruptions are idle time, meetings, breaks, and communication. To calculate the WIF, add ten percent per interruption type and one percent for each team member.

• Part-time Effect (PTE) - The PTE compensates for the fact that the team may work on more than one activity at a time. To determine PTE, assign a 0 percent loss for full-time work, a 10 percent loss for three quarter time work, a 15 percent loss for part-time work, and a 20 percent loss for one quarter time.

Once you know how to calculate the factors used in resource profiling, you can calculate the Normalized Effort (NE).
To calculate NE, subtract the WIF from 100. Then divide 100 by this value. Next, subtract the PTE from 100. Then divide 100 by this value. Finally, multiply these two values with BE and SF.

In addition to determining the work effort, you need to determine the associated costs of the proposed change. There are many direct and indirect costs associated with implementing a scope change. Some of these costs include:

• overtime payments
• late completion penalty
• lost business opportunity
• rework
  
• new equipment
• insurance requirements
• changes to guarantee or warranty.

The associated costs of a proposed change should be expressed in a cost estimate (CE). To produce an effective cost estimate, you need to include all of the resources required for the task, including the time it takes to complete the change. The more resources you include, the more accurate your cost estimate will be.

There are some situations in which you won't have enough information to assess the impact of a requested change. The change request form could be missing vital information or be improperly filled out. In these situations, you should request more information from the person who originally requested the scope change or from other members of the project team who would be able to supply supporting details. You must then reassess the impact of the change.

Once you have all of the required information, you need to choose the appropriate status for the change request. The three status options are: approve, endorse, or reject.

You should base your scope change control decision on the results of comparing the estimated effort and the associated costs to the contingency reserve for your project.

• You should approve a change request if the contingency reserve is greater than the effort and cost estimate. For example, if the estimated effort is 12 hours, and the contingency reserve is 40 hours, you should approve the change.
• You should endorse the change request to the project steering committee if the estimated effort and associated cost are less than ten percent above the reserve. The project steering committee would need to approve the discrepancy.
• You should reject a change request if the contingency reserve is less than the effort and cost estimate. Approving a change in this situation would cause deviations and overruns not approved by the project steering committee or the client.

By using accurate work effort and cost estimates, you will be able to assess the impact of project changes and determine the status of the changes. These methods of scope change control will help your project stay on the right track.

Two Other Important Inputs to Scope Change Control

Your project scope is a dynamic entity. If you don't keep an eye on it, it can spin out of control and wreak havoc on your project. Project scope verification and change control are the processes used to keep your project on target, on schedule, and within budget. The main inputs to these processes are the work results, product documentation, work breakdown structure (WBS), scope statement, and project plan. Two other inputs to scope change control are also invaluable in scope verification and change control. These "other" inputs are the scope management plan and performance reports.

• Scope management plan
  
  The scope management plan is a basic high-level plan for scope change control. Developed during the scope planning process, it is actually a part of the scope statement. It will help you rate how proposed changes will impact the project.
  
  High-impact changes are the most severe and affect the whole company. Scope changes of this type affect the revenue and schedule of a project. For example, a delay in supplies could be rated as a high-impact change if it will impede the project schedule.
  
  Medium-impact changes affect the project team members. These scope changes could alter how the team approaches the project, but shouldn't add time or money to the project.
  
  Low-impact changes affect individual members of the team. Team members may need to modify a particular task within a project phase. Low-impact changes should not affect project baselines.
  
  Another component of the scope management plan used as an input to scope change control is the description of roles and responsibilities in relation to scope changes. Clearly defined responsibilities make the change process smoother because the team members will know exactly what they are expected to do.
  
  The requester is any project stakeholder who submits a change request. It is his or her responsibility to fully complete the change request form and forward it to the change coordinator for the project.
  
  The change coordinator receives new change requests and ensures they are complete. The change coordinator is responsible for requesting clarification of any confusing information and forwarding the change request to the assessment team. This person may also lead the assessment team.
  
  The members of the assessment team are responsible for determining the impact of the proposed change on the scope of the project. They also provide an estimate of effort to implement the change.
  
  The project manager reviews the assessment information and determines the impact on project schedule and budget. It is the responsibility of the PM to approve or reject any change request that is within his threshold of acceptance. He passes any other changes to the project steering committee.
  
  The project steering committee reviews change requests only when asked by the project manager. The steering committee has the authority to approve or reject these changes.
  

• Performance reports
  
  Performance reports are also inputs to scope change control. One of the duties of the project manager is to provide stakeholders with periodic project updates. Performance reports provide the project manager with a means to provide accurate, periodic reports. The reports include values of planned, actual, and earned costs, which show project performance at the present time as compared to the baseline or objectives. You can use these values to measure performance after making a change.
  

"Other" inputs to scope change control help to ensure that changes to your project's scope are adequately controlled. Together, the scope management plan and performance reports provide additional information to help you manage scope changes and incorporate them more easily into your project.

Dealing with Performance Problems

Leaders can help their employees improve their performance by using a progressive discipline system.

To help an employee with a performance problem, you should:

• get to the heart of the problem
• respond to the problem by preparing an action plan
• use discipline to deal with the problem.

Get to the heart of the problem
When there is a problem with an employee's performance, you should get to the heart of the problem before you attempt to correct it. This is important because the cause of a performance problem is not always apparent.

To correct the problem, you need to address the cause. To determine what is causing a performance problem, you should ask the following questions:

• Does the employee understand the goals and standards of the job?
• Does the employee get timely feedback on his or her performance?
• Did the employee get adequate training for the job?
• Does the employee demonstrate competency in other tasks?
• Is the employee capable of doing the work?
• Does the employee have the resources to do a good job?

Respond to the problem by preparing an action plan
Once you have determined the cause of a performance problem, you should meet with the employee involved to discuss possible solutions.

When you do this, don't get personally involved in the problem or apologize for having to deal with it. You want to help the employee succeed. Find out what the employee would like to see as an outcome. Then set up a plan of action.

Begin with the assumption that any corrective action you take should first and foremost help improve an employee's performance.

The following gives more about preparing an action plan:

• Make sure that employees with performance problems have a clear understanding of their jobs.
• Present clear information about how the job should be done, clarify each step, and emphasize the major responsibilities.
• Provide training if necessary.
• Make your employees responsible for the outcome of this process. Ask them to check back with you frequently.
• Encourage your employees.

Use discipline to deal with the problem
When it becomes necessary to take disciplinary measures, you should use a four-step procedure. Because these steps sometimes lead to termination, you should ensure that you have all of the facts and use the same procedure for all employees.

It's also important that you do not allow your judgment to be clouded by prior, unrelated problems. There is more information on the steps below:

1. In step one, verbally remind the employee about the problem, and state that the problem is now in the formal disciplinary stage.
2. Go to step two if the problem continues. Give the employee formal written notification of the continuing problem.
3. If these steps fail, move to step three, in which the employee is given one day of paid leave to decide whether to stay and improve or leave. This demonstrates the organization's desire to give the employee control over whether to stay or leave.
4. Step four is termination. Having documented all the previous steps in the employee's file, set a specific time for an interview. Inform the employee of your decision. Keep the meeting simple and short. The employee had every opportunity to improve. There is no need for further discussion.

By following well-thought-out steps in correcting performance problems, a leader can keep employees motivated and effective. Do you have procedures in place that make discipline a progressive measure?

Identifying Performance Standards

Performance standards are target measurements for achieving quality in work. The guidelines for setting performance standards follow these three perspectives:

1. establishing criteria for quality-performance standards
2. clarifying quality-performance standard
3. providing positive reinforcement and recognition for quality-performance standards

Establishing criteria for quality-performance standards
Before you set performance standards, it's important to establish your criteria. You should consider quality, quantity, time, and customer requirements as criteria for establishing performance standards.

Clarifying quality-performance standard
You should clarify your performance standards once you have established your criteria for setting them. It's important to involve your employees in this process. The following provide more information on how to do this:

• Once you establish your criteria for setting performance standards, you should describe your criteria to your employees. You should work with your employees to prioritize the tasks according to the customer requirements, and the time, quantity and level of quality needed.
• You should meet with your employees to record all the tasks and standards that are required to meet your criteria. To make your standards meaningful, they should be measurable.
• You should develop a tracking system and hold regular one-on-one discussions with your employees about work in progress. Don't wait until you have problems to establish a tracking system.

Providing positive reinforcement and recognition for quality-performance standards
After you establish your criteria and clarify your performance standards, it's important to encourage your employees to follow them. You should:

• provide positive reinforcement for following standards
• recognize those who adhere to the standards.

Performance standards are target measurements for achieving quality in work. You can use them to help your organization.

Identifying Performance Problems

In most organizations, it's essential that employees maintain certain performance standards in order for the department to meet its quotas.

When quotas are not met, you must determine why. What are the reasons for poor performance that you must understand?

There are a number of reasons for poor performance. You'll approach these reasons from three different perspectives:

• the reasons for performance problems
• the elements of performance
• the attitude behind performance.

The reasons for performance problems
Most performance difficulties arise for four different reasons. These reasons are explained below:

• Employees' lack of knowledge prevents them from knowing what to do.
• Employees lack the aptitude to do what is required of them and therefore are not capable of completing tasks.
• Excessive interferences from processes, people, or technology can create a situation where employees are not allowed to do what is required of them.
• Finally, some performance problems are caused by employees refusing to do what's required of them. When there are no safety issues involved, this is usually a result of attitude problems.

The elements of performance
When you discover performance problems, what are you actually measuring these results against? There are seven elements of performance that help you target employees' achievements. These elements of performance are:

1. Goals: What do they need to achieve?
2. Standards: How are their achievements quantified?
3. Feedback: Do they have the guidance they need?
4. Competence: Have we properly trained them?
5. Opportunity: Do they have chances for advancement?
6. Means: Do they have the tools to do their job?
7. Motive: Do they have good reasons to want to do this?

A useful tool for analyzing performance is to chart the reasons for performance problems against the elements of performance. This can help you figure out how to specifically address each performance problem.

The attitude behind performance
Attitudes are often part of vicious cycles in which an attitude provides a mental excuse to behave in a certain way. Quite often, this behavior creates a result that reinforces the original attitude.

Attitudes are not always easy to change because they can come from so many different sources. Some are brought to work by employees, and some are formed as a result of things that happen in the work setting. The following provide more about the source of attitudes:

• personal background
• self-esteem
• prior experience
• unclear goals
• poor feedback
• lack of recognition
• nature of the work
• inadequate compensation.

Consider the principal causes for performance problems for addressing the problem areas in your workplace.

Understanding Communication Strategies

Many employees are expected to argue for themselves in order to promote the organization's interests through their own department.

But how do you monitor the strategies these people use to argue for their interests?

You can encourage people to use communicative strategies to resolve conflicts. You can also stress the importance of avoiding contentious strategies that result in division. To do this, considers these points:

• rules for open communications
• conflict-resolution methods
• avoiding contentious strategies.

Rules for open communications
When you hire someone for your department, or when meetings start to get out of hand, you could bring up a series of basic rules for open communication. These are communicative strategies. The following provide more about the elements of open communication:

• I statements: When discussing your feelings about an emotional situation, use statements such as, "I feel this way when this happens." It's non-accusatory and expresses what you feel.
• willingness: People on both sides of a disagreement need to indicate their willingness to resolve their differences.
• listening: Everyone needs to hear the speaker and acknowledge through verbal and nonverbal means that he or she is listening.
• restating: When it's your turn to speak in reply to what someone else has said, restate what you believe you heard him say. This helps eliminate misunderstandings.
• agreements: It's also important to point out what interests you have in common with those you disagree with. This sets an optimistic tone for possible agreements.
• requests: It's divisive to ask someone to stop doing something you don't like; however, it's OK to request a change of behavior, especially if you suggest alternatives.
• consistency: Be consistent with your verbal and nonverbal message.
• word choice: Be careful with the words you use when describing negative feelings. Try to choose noninflammatory language and tone down your emotions.

Conflict-resolution methods
There are other strategies you can use, but these strategies should be used as a last-resort tactic, when nothing else has worked. These strategies lie somewhere in between communicative and contentious.

The following provide more about these strategies:

• Giving in is an acceptable strategy when you won't suffer long-term harm. It can be an effective bargaining chip that lets you move on to a more important point.
• When it appears that a conflict is about to escalate, it's OK to break off or even give up on trying to resolve it.
• Avoiding a problem can be OK if time will take care of it. This is a difficult decision to make.
• In emergencies, when quick and decisive actions must be taken, when you must implement an unpopular decision, or when someone is playing games with you, it is OK to be abrupt.

Avoiding contentious strategies
It is very important to point out to the people in your group what you consider to be contentious strategies. The following provide more about these inappropriate tactics:

• Sometimes, when people try to become your new best friend, and flatter and compliment you, they may be trying to get you to make a decision against your interests.
• Inducing guilt is an inappropriate way to get someone to change her mind.
• Gamesmanship is the use of maneuvers that further your own position over others.
• Another contentious tactic is the use of threats.
• Side issue remarks are derogatory comments directed at your opponent.

To resolve a conflict with an employee, it's important to use appropriate communicative strategies and avoid contention. You should show willingness and consistency in resolving a conflict, use I statements and proper word choice, listen to and restate a message, find common ground and request a change of behavior.

If these strategies do not work, you should then use an appropriate last-resort strategy.

Understanding Cooperative Resolution

Conflict occurs in every organization.

Organizations that successfully manage conflict can do so by resolving it cooperatively.

There are two means that effective leaders use to reach cooperative conflict resolution. They:

• set preconditions to a cooperative resolution
• follow the steps to a cooperative resolution.

Set preconditions to a cooperative resolution
Whenever there is a conflict between your employees, it's important to set the preconditions for cooperative resolution before any attempt is made to resolve the conflict.

This will help both parties in a conflict to separate the problem from the people involved, and work together for a mutually beneficial solution. Begin by meeting separately with each side and establishing the following preconditions for cooperative resolution.

Make certain that both parties understand that they can meet their own interests by helping others meet theirs.

Encourage both parties to come up with an alternate plan. It's important that neither side enter negotiations with a rigid mindset.

Make sure that both parties separate the people involved in the dispute from the dispute itself. Work-related problems that become personal disputes are more difficult to resolve.

Follow the steps to a cooperative resolution
Once the preconditions for a cooperative resolution are set, a leader should get the parties in a conflict to sit down together and follow the steps for a cooperative resolution. These are the four steps that a leader should follow:

• Conflicts often arise over simple misunderstandings. Taking time to eliminate all misunderstandings between parties in a conflict can make it much easier to reach a cooperative resolution.
• The second step is identifying and analyzing all issues and interests. This is an important step because it is easy to overlook issues in a conflict, yet difficult to find solutions if all issues are not identified.
• In the third step of the cooperative resolution process, leaders should help employees find integrative solutions. This type of solution allows both parties to win. As you negotiate for a mutually beneficial solution, you should make sure that neither party dominates and that both remain flexible.
• If unable to find a successful integrative solution, a leader should proceed to the fourth step. This involves revisiting each of the steps in an attempt to find a solution. If still unsuccessful, the leader makes the final decision.

To resolve conflicts between employees, it is important to follow the steps for reaching a cooperative resolution. To do this, you should eliminate misunderstandings, analyze the issues and interests of both sides, and find solutions that benefit both parties.

If a cooperative resolution is not found after following these steps, you should revisit the previous steps. If a solution is still not reached after revisiting all the steps, you will have to make the decision yourself.

By applying a variety of methods, you can resolve the conflicts between your employees cooperatively. How could these skills contribute to your own leadership abilities and to the success of your organization?

Understanding Conflict

Conflicts among employees occur in every organization.

As an effective leader you need to know how to deal with conflict.

Understanding conflict means examining:

• the concept of conflict
• constructive conflict
• the escalation of conflict
• the psychological changes that accompany conflict
• the two primary reasons for conflict.

Constructive conflict
While we all know conflict when we feel it, most of us don't work with it well because we don't understand its dynamics. What are the inner workings of conflict?

Conflict is an everyday, naturally occurring fact of life. Without it, there is no progress, evolution, or art. Don't fear it; learn how to face it and work with it. It occurs when you believe that in order to get what you want, someone else won't be able to get what he or she wants.

The concept of conflict
The resolution of a problem can show the three ways conflict can be constructive. These are:

• when it leads to unity of purpose and collaboration
• when it leads to better decision making
• when it produces change.

The escalation of conflict
Many conflicts, however, turn destructive because they escalate out of control. Consider the following reasons that conflict escalates:

• Cooperation turns into accusations and threats.
• One issue becomes many.
• A specific issue gives way to general complaints.
• Consideration turns to getting even.
• More people begin to get involved.

The psychological changes that accompany conflict
There are a number of psychological changes that happen to people when they get involved in conflicts. These are explained in detail below:

• When you are in conflict, you develop selective perception, only seeing your own side of the story. You begin to look for evidence to prove you're right.
• Conflict can also cause you to create a self-fulfilling prophecy, where you create a worst-case scenario, and then get what you expect by acting as if it's going to happen.
• When conflict is played out, a complete communication breakdown occurs. Trust is rarely reestablished, and any polite conversation that follows is filled with tension and bitterness.

The two primary reasons for conflict
There are two primary reasons for conflict. One primary reason for conflict is that two people have different interests; they want different things. Another primary reason for conflict is two people have the same interests, which are in conflict; they believe only one of them can have what they want.

Exploring conflict resolution within your organization can improve the atmosphere in the workplace and lead to greater creativity and collaboration.

Understanding Listening Strategies

Listening is one of the most valuable skills a leader can have.

Many people assume that listening is a passive experience, but it actually requires active participation. There are a variety of methods for effective listening, including:

• using attentiveness, silence, and neutrality
• reflecting and summarizing
• sorting and patterning
• noting gaps and interruptions
• expressing feeling and testing for responsibility.

When people talk, they expect others to listen to them, but they generally give little thought to what this means. The following are some first steps to good listening:

• Focus your attention on the person who's talking. Maintain eye contact. If your body language says you're not interested, the person will sense it.
• Remain silent, except for recognition that you're following along, such as a semi-verbal "uh-huh" or a head nod. This says you're paying attention.
• Maintain a neutral frame of mind. This means not judging or attempting to control the conversation, not suggesting or correcting, and not praising or criticizing.

There are two other techniques for making people aware that you are paying attention. First, use reflective statements. These are words that echo important words or phrases that the patient uses. Second, summarize what you have just heard and repeat it back to the speaker.

You can also wait for a break in the narration, and then sort out and find patterns in their experiences. This can help to sort out the differences between symptoms and deeper problems.

Try to notice inconsistencies in narratives. What is left out of a conversation can be as helpful in analyzing a situation as what is included.

Toward the end of a conversation, you can encourage the speaker to step back from their story and summarize it for themselves.

Remember that effective listening requires active participation. You should use attentiveness, silence and neutrality when listening. It's important to use reflective statements and summarize the employee's message. You should also sort symptoms from deeper problems, note gaps and interruptions in your employee's story, encourage your employee to express feeling, and test for responsibility.

Understanding Good Questions

To accomplish your goals as a businessperson and leader, one of the best strategies is knowing how to ask key questions.

Key questioning strategies can help you:

• uncover the problem in front of you
• identify the purpose of your actions
• discover the premise you're following
• determine the resources you need
• determine customer interest
• gather the data you need.

One questioning strategy used by Japanese teachers of quality is the use of Why? They suggest asking this question five times to discover the underlying causes of a problem and then finding solutions.

Another key question is aimed at discovering the purpose of any action. For example, whenever someone suggests a new project or product, you could ask, "What is the purpose of this?"

You should also subject every suggestion or idea that is presented to a question concerning its premise. A premise is the belief or attitude that forms the basis of an assumption.

Every new project, idea, or suggestion that is presented to you requires effort and resources to be carried out. To help employees figure out how to convert these thoughts into actions, you should ask them questions about resources.

Occasionally, your employees will come to you with a suggestion that you know they have not researched. Instead of dismissing the idea, use questions designed to encourage employees to come up with the data they need.

You can maintain a thriving business by knowing how to ask good questions that engage your employees in the process of improvement.

Understanding Leadership through Questioning

One of the most important things that you can do to improve your company is to ask the right questions in the right way.

Questioning strategies that improve the way employees and production process work include:

• collaborating
• experimenting
• educating
• reviewing.

Collaborating
There are many different ways that leaders can approach working with their employees. In the old style of organizations, leaders would direct rather than collaborate.

Leaders who direct have a hard time learning to ask questions. They tell others what to do and pack unsolicited advice into their conversations with subordinates. On the other hand, leaders who collaborate with their team do so by asking questions and using what they discover to improve the way the team operates.

A good piece of advice is to learn the difference between opinions and facts. Employees and co-workers are much more likely to be drawn into dialog with someone who knows the difference.

Experimenting
Leaders who understand what they don't know take the experimenter approach, using questions to learn. Leaders who think they know everything use their opinions as facts and don't listen to those who actually know.

Educating
Another hallmark of leadership is educating. When teachers start giving advice, they have failed as teachers. When leaders spell out what they believe to be true, with no room for inquiry, they are telling others what to do. But when leaders use step-by-step questions designed to let others figure out answers for themselves, they are educating.

The trickiest questioning strategy has to be employed when there is something wrong with someone's work. In the old school of management, leaders often served as inspectors. When they found a mistake, they pointed it out. "This is a mistake," they'd say. This accusatory manner makes people defensive and works against positive solutions.

Reviewing
Leaders who use reviewing as a questioning strategy learn how to ask the questions that get others to see the flaws in their own work. "How can you stop this problem from occurring?" or "What can you do to track down the source of the problem?" are inquiries that encourage participation and involvement.

By using a variety of questioning strategies to involve others in the production process, you can significantly improve quality and efficiency at your organization.

Understanding Group Communications

Group communications are essential to successful organizations.

Leaders can improve group communication by:

1. increasing team communication
2. improving organizational communication
3. using informal communication networks.

Increasing team communication
There are a number of things you can do to improve the way your group shares information. Some of these are shown below:

• Use a variety of formats to get the team together to talk, including team meetings, informal chats, and scheduled informational discussions.
• Ensure everyone understands the purpose of these sessions.
• Ensure that the group understands how proud you are of their work.
• Some people in a group can be bashful about raising questions, so you could attempt to anticipate their needs when responding to others' questions.
• You could use newsletters, bulletin boards, and e-mail to communicate with your team.

Improving organizational communication
In addition to improving communications, it is important to contribute to the communications of the larger organization. The following are examples of how contributions to organizational communications could be made:

• Every organization needs a dependable internal communications program. In larger companies, someone is usually in charge of this. In smaller companies, it can be a collective function of leaders at all levels.
• Good organizational communication means that the members are well informed on all significant issues which affect them, including business challenges, policy changes, and operational and strategic issues.
• Other issues which are included in organizational communications include organizational structure, customer service, workplace improvements, and the use of information technology.
• Leaders should always be searching for ways to improve communications outside of their immediate realms. You are also responsible for correcting any misinformation about your subordinates or department.
• It's also necessary for a leader to actively communicate with other departments to discover information that you need but has not been given to you.
• Another way of improving communications among different groups is to suggest a shared function such as a potluck lunch or weekend social activity.

Using informal communication networks
Another means used to communicate is to use informal networks. This is not much different than what is commonly called the grapevine. Leaders can use this type of communication in the following ways:

• An informal network, or grapevine, can complement or detract from other group communications.
• Accept the fact that grapevines can't be eliminated and are very difficult to control. They are, however, easy to use.
• Talking informally or casually with your subordinates and others can provide you with a vast amount of information about your organization.
• As a leader, it's your responsibility to correct and dispel any incorrect information that you discover in the grapevine.

You can use a variety of methods to improve communications among your group and between your group and the rest of the organization. How can these techniques improve your own group communications?

Improving Personal Communication Skills

Improving leadership abilities is intrinsically connected to improving communication skills.

Factors that improve personal communications include the following:

• face-to-face communicating
• listening to others
• speaking well
• presenting effectively
• writing clearly

Most staff interactions, like most business communications, occur one-on-one and in small groups. You should try to increase the quality and quantity of these small encounters because they are the most effective means of delivering his message.

The following four suggestions can be used in this setting:

1. One key in getting people to come to you when they need your help is to be approachable. Do this by adjusting your speaking style to more closely resemble those to whom you're speaking.
2. Be understanding and sincere. Being empathetic towards others and trying to understand their motivations and concerns helps create a two-way relationship.
3. Consistency in the way you communicate to others improves communication. If your approach to others is erratic, this sends confusing and conflicting messages.
4. It's also valuable to repeat your important messages from time to time to make sure that they are received and understood. Also, having your instructions mirrored back to you helps when you're having a difficult time communicating with certain people.

In addition to the face-to-face communication skills, there are other skills that would improve communication abilities:

• Leaders should aim to spend more time listening than talking. This is an active, not passive process in which you try to understand the other person's perspective. Let your ears be the gateway to others' strengths and concerns.
• Leaders need to communicate clearly. Proper speech and grammar, along with easy-to-follow points are vital to your effectiveness. Seek help if this is a problem for you.
• Making presentations is part of being a leader. Being natural, using visual aids, and including humor are all part of good presentations. Rehearse with someone whose criticism you value.

Writing skills are another area that should be considered important to your development as a leader. Learning to write correctly takes time, effort, and a real commitment. The following are tips to improve your writing:

• Visit a library or bookstore to see the resources available. In addition, write whenever possible.
• Make note of the purpose and main points of your document before you begin to write it.
• Consider who will be reading what you write, what they know about the subject, and what you want them to do after they read the document.
• Avoid using phrases that make excuses, lack confidence, or suggest incompetence.
• Keep your language simple, use a minimum of jargon, or specialized words, and be as brief as possible.
• Reread what you've written at least twice and make whatever corrections or improvements you can.
• Have an assistant or associate review the document for effectiveness, clarity, and correctness before you send it.

Finally, you should learn to improve your awareness of what you communicate nonverbally.
People are naturally aware of your physical actions when they are contradicting or working against what you're saying. Tapping your pen out of nervousness, avoiding eye contact, or looking bored all work against effective communications.

On the other hand, you can use nonverbal communications to your advantage by relaxing, maintaining good posture, staying energetic, and directly addressing others. Videotaping one of your presentations can help you correct bad habits.

The continued success of your company is due, in part, to the effectiveness of your personal communication skills. Consider which of these skills would improve your abilities.

Understanding Clear Messages

For executives, communication is a critical part of leadership.

The essential elements of sending clear messages include:

1. conceiving your messages
2. sending your messages
3. monitoring your messages.

Conceiving your messages
There are a number of steps that you can follow to create a clear message. These are shown below:

1. The first step in creating a clear message is knowing why the message needs to be sent. You could be requesting information or asking for a specific action. Carefully consider the reason for your message before you craft it.
2. Focus on who it is you're contacting. The greater your awareness of that person and his or her concerns, the greater the effectiveness of your message.
3. Believe that the details of the message already exist within you. Learn how to let this information come to the fore, and distinguish between the details that are important and those that are extraneous.

Sending your messages
The second stage of communicating her message is choosing the means of delivering her message and actually sending it.

If the message dictates a personal delivery and you can't go yourself, consider a spoken form such as a messenger, a telephone call, or a videotape. However, if the message is nonpersonal, technical, or routine in nature, then consider delivering it via letter, e-mail, news release, or organizational publication.

Monitoring your messages
The last step that you have to consider before sending your message is how you are going to monitor the receipt of the information and whether or not it was understood.

The following are a few key ideas about following up after the message is sent:

• Set up a way to check whether the message was received, understood, and retained.
• If the recipient didn't receive the message, find out why and correct the problem.
• Make sure you have the attention of the person to whom you're sending the message.

By carefully following the steps to sending a clear message and understanding the key elements of the process, you can effectively communicate information.

The Most Common Reasons for Change Requests

Change is inevitable. As a project manager, you will probably encounter many changes as you plan and execute your project. At least some of these changes will affect the project's scope, either increasing it or decreasing it. To better manage and control these kinds of changes, you should know what changes are most often requested.

A change request may be initiated internally or externally. It may be written or verbal, legally mandated or optional.

There are five common reasons for changing the scope of your project.

1. an external event - The first reason for a scope change request is an external event. These are factors outside of your control that impact the scope of the project. External events can be general or project-specific.
   
   A general event, such as a state-wide power failure due to a violent hurricane, does not directly relate to the project, but could force a change request.
   
   A project-specific event could be a change in local zoning regulations that require immediate changes to the project. While this is out of your control, it affects the project.
   
   
2. a "product" scope error - The second reason for a scope change request is a product scope error. This includes any omissions, inaccuracies, or miscalculations relating to the product of the project. Any of these errors could prompt a change request.
   
   Think about a software development project. An example of a product scope error would be the failure to include a required feature in the original design. Without a change request, the final product would be missing a desired feature.
   
   
3. a "project" scope error - A project scope error is the third reason for change requests. A project scope error usually results from an error in estimating or planning the work in the initial phases of the project. This could include anything from underestimating the time it takes to complete each task to not properly defining the work in each phase. Although most project scope errors cause the project to run behind schedule, they can also result in phases or deliverables being completed ahead of schedule.
   
   Using an incomplete WBS for a telecommunications project would prompt a change request due to a project scope error. Since the project manager did not properly define some activities, activities were duplicated, causing schedule and budget problems.
   
   
4. a value-adding change - The fourth reason for changing the scope of your project is a value-adding change. Value-adding changes are caused by factors that cannot be considered when the original scope is defined, but if implemented into the project scope, will improve the project or make it more cost effective. In a software game development project, a value-adding change could be new technology that enables players to play against other competitors online. This situation would require a change request due to a value-adding change.
   
   
5. a contingency plan implementation - The final reason for a change request might occur if you implement a contingency plan to handle a risk on your project. A contingency plan is applied to the identified risks on a project to reduce the cost and impact if the risk does occur. If the risk has a higher impact than anticipated, a change in project scope may be required. Tom, a software engineer, is working on a software development project that will allow a home entertainment system to be activated by both remote control and a human speaking a command. Tom needed to implement a contingency plan—human voice recognition—because the project manager learned a competitor was developing a similar product with voice recognition capabilities. Without this change request, the company risked losing sales to the competitor once the project went to market.

Change requests act as a record of the project's evolution and progressive elaboration. Since change requests explain the reason for change, they help ensure that all stakeholders understand and agree to the proposed change.

Whether changes to your project come in the form of federal laws or an error in judgment, one thing is certain—change will happen. Familiarizing yourself with the most common reasons for changing the project scope will allow you to manage and control these kinds of change requests.

Ensuring that Scope Changes Are Properly Implemented

Do you find it easier to manage a huge task by organizing it into smaller tasks? Project managers manage a huge task—the project—by organizing it into activities using a work breakdown structure (WBS).

The WBS is a framework that defines the scope of the entire project; work not in the WBS is outside the scope of the project. The approved WBS represents all of the work packages and activities that must be completed in order to finish a project.

To effectively control scope change throughout your project, you have to review the approved WBS. By reviewing the approved WBS, you ensure that the change will be properly implemented. At this review stage of the project, you should be looking at the activities and any resulting changes and impacts.

• the activities - The first thing to review is the activity level of the WBS to ensure that all activities resulting from the change have been included so that the corresponding deliverable can be met. A forgotten activity can result in a missed deliverable or non-acceptance by the client, so this is a very important step.

• any resulting changes and impacts - The project manager must also review the WBS to ensure that the resulting changes to the activities and their impacts on the schedule and budget have been considered. The project manager should ask himself if the change to the activities could cause the starting or ending date of the corresponding deliverables or final products to be delayed. He should also determine if the budget will be sufficient. If the answer to either of these questions is yes, the project manager can then use the tools and techniques of scope change control to assess the impact.

Project managers and the project team frequently refer to the WBS throughout the project. The WBS is the key to scope change control because it defines all the work in the project.

What is the Final Output of Project Scope Verification?

Someone once said that "Happiness can exist only in acceptance." Although the statement wasn't referring to project management, project managers are certainly happy when the client accepts the project work results.

The final result or output from the scope verification process is formal acceptance. Formal acceptance happens when the client or sponsor of a project accepts and acknowledges the project phase or major deliverable of the project. Formal acceptance is usually in the form of written documentation.

Formal acceptance may be conditional or complete.

• Conditional acceptance is usually offered when minor adjustments are necessary. Conditional acceptance is dependent on correcting the work results that don't match the project scope.

• Complete acceptance occurs when the work results of the project match the scope plan and client expectations. The project requires no changes.

Whether formal acceptance is conditional or complete, you should gather the documentation that reflects the formal acceptance of each phase or deliverable. This documentation includes:

• The scope statement
  The first component of the formal acceptance documentation is the scope statement. The scope statement is an output from the scope planning process. It is important to include this document because it outlines what the project was supposed to do.
  
  The scope statement typically has four sections: project justification, a description of the project's product, project deliverables, and project objectives.
  
  Project justification describes the business need that the project was undertaken to address. It provides the basis for evaluating future trade-offs within the project.
  
  The description of the project's product is a brief summary of the final outcome of the project. It should present all major aspects of the final product.
  
  Project deliverables are usually presented in a list of phases whose satisfactory delivery mark the project completion. For example, major deliverables for a computer software project may include a working computer code, a user manual, and a tutorial.
  
  Project objectives are the quantifiable criteria that determine if the project is successful. They must include at least cost, schedule, and quality measures. Unquantifiable objectives, such as customer satisfaction, involve a great deal of risk.
  

• A description of the work results
  The second component of the formal acceptance documentation is a description of the work results. This section outlines exactly what was presented for formal acceptance. It describes what the project produced. The description of the work results will most likely be the largest part of the documentation. This section should include both tangible and intangible items.
  
  Tangible work results include deliverables such as buildings, roads, computer software programs, or new products. Intangible items are deliverables such as people who are effectively able to apply new training.
  

• The details of inspection procedures
  The third component of the formal acceptance documentation includes the details of the inspection procedures. The documentation should explain what you have done to ensure that the project's product meets the original scope. As a PM, you need to provide verification that the project has been properly assessed. In this section of the formal acceptance documentation, include information from the inspection meeting, such as who attended the meeting, what areas were inspected, and the outcome of the meeting.
  

• The product acceptance form
  The final component of the formal acceptance documentation is the product acceptance form. This is usually a one-page document that acknowledges the client has signed off the phase or deliverable and accepted the work results. This form should bear the signatures of the project manager and the client.
  

After gathering the inputs to scope verification, completing the scope verification inspection meeting, and gaining formal acceptance by the client, you need only gather the necessary formal acceptance documentation to complete the process of project scope verification and work results acceptance.

A 4-step Approach to Scope Verification

As a project manager, you will need to prepare for a critical inspection of the project work. The inspection of the work results usually occurs at a meeting with project team members and key stakeholders. When conducted properly, this critical inspection verifies that all deliverables and work results are completed according to the project plan.

The project manager is frequently asked to facilitate the inspection meeting. There are four steps for facilitating a scope verification inspection meeting.

1. First, you need to choose the appropriate reviewers who will attend the inspection meeting.
2. Next, revisit project goals so that all of the reviewers are aware of the direction of the project.
3. Then you should review the work results to compare the project's product to the expected deliverables as outlined in the WBS.
4. Finally, you need to decide on appropriate action as a result of the scope verification.
   

Even before the actual inspection meeting begins, the project manager needs to choose appropriate reviewers. In addition to the project manager and at least one project team member, you may want to ask the following people to attend the meeting:

• Subject Matter Expert (SME) - An SME acts as an adviser to the project team when the team needs external expertise. SMEs should attend the inspection meetings to provide the team with the necessary advice and to verify the results of the work.

• Project Sponsor - The project sponsor is the individual or group that provides the financial resources for the project. The project sponsor should attend the inspection when the project is a new or risky venture. It is not necessary to include the project sponsor for projects that are repetitive or recurring.

• Customers - The customer is any individual or organization that will use the project's product. It could be the client or outside consumers. Customers should attend the inspection meeting when their cooperation is essential for the project.

The next step in facilitating a scope verification inspection meeting is to revisit the project goals. The meeting facilitator needs to ensure that all reviewers are aware of the original purpose of the project and of the goal of the inspection meeting.
As the meeting facilitator, you need to explain to the inspection team members that they will compare the actual work results to the planned scope of the project to ensure that project results are acceptable.

Once all of the reviewers are aware of the purpose of the project and the inspection meeting, the inspection team should review the work results and do the following:

• Identify any omissions in the product that were in the original plan.

• Verify whether the omissions, if any, were approved through a scope change.

• Note any oversights in the work results.

• Ensure that all documentation is available.

• Note any exceptions or deviations from the project baseline.

• Note any discrepancies (variances) between the work results and the scope baseline.

• Note any violations of industry or client standards.

After reviewing the work results, the inspection team needs to decide on appropriate action. In a scope verification inspection, there are three actions that you may choose from, depending on the outcome of the meeting.

1. The inspection team can accept the work results if the planned scope and the work results match. There should be no unapproved deviations from the plan when you accept the work results.
   
   
2. The reviewers at the inspection meeting should request minor changes if it won't affect the project budget or schedule. Minor changes could include asking for slight product modifications or for more detailed documentation.
   
   
3. The inspection team should reject the work results if there are obvious and substantial deviations from the planned scope. If the changes required to fix the deviations cause cost overruns or put the project behind schedule, the reviewers should reject the work results.

Before presenting your project to the client for final acceptance, you can use the tools and techniques for scope verification to ensure that the work results are acceptable. Remember to perform a careful and thorough inspection.