Professional Development Units (PDUs)

Professional Development Units (PDUs) is a way to maintain your certificate credential(s). If you hold the PMP^®, PgMP^®, PMI-SP^®, or PMI-RMP^® credential(s), you are required to adhere to the Continuing Certification Requirements (CCR) program, which supports ongoing professional development through education and giving back to the profession.

Fortunately, there are plenty of opportunities to earn professional development units (PDUs) toward maintaining your credential(s).

While courses and seminars are ideal ways to stay up-to-date with project management best practices, many other activities occurring in your daily professional life may count toward PDUs, too.

Continue Your Education

1. Registered Education Provider (R.E.P.) Courses : There are more than 1,100 PMI R.E.P.s worldwide who offer courses that are pre-approved for PDUs.
2. E-Learning : PMI’s e-Learning offerings allow you to increase your understanding of project management and apply real-world knowledge through simulations at your own pace. These include our eSeminarsWorld^SM courses and our Publication Quizzes.
3. PMI Community Offerings : PMI chapters and communities of practice hold events, meetings, webinars and educational sessions. PMI members can join these communities and take advantage of their offerings.
4. PMI^® Global Congresses and Regional Events : Attend a congress or regional event and learn, network and get inspired.
5. SeminarsWorld : Held throughout the year, SeminarsWorld events provide in-depth coverage of a single topic for beginning, mid-level and experienced project professionals.
6. Self-Directed Learning: PMI will recognize activities that involve personally conducted research or study, including discussions or coaching sessions with colleagues or clients. Such activities should make use of informational materials like CD-ROMs, articles, books, videos or instructional manuals.
7. Educational Programs by Outside Providers: PMI recognizes relevant educational activities or programs offered by organizations not registered with PMI.

Give Back to the Profession

8. Creating new content. Write project management-related books and articles for professional print or electronic publications, including PMI’s numerous publications or PMI Knowledge Shelf. If you’re web savvy, write a blog for your company or organization, or present a podcast or webinar. Check out PMI’s Voices on Project Management blog.
9. Volunteer Service: Earn PDUs for providing your professional services to an organization or group outside of your employer; this includes any elected offices you hold for a project management organization. PMI also has many volunteer opportunities.
10. Doing Your Job: When you practice project (project scheduling, risk, or program) management professionally, you can claim PDUs. If you work every day as a project manager, this counts toward credential maintenance.

All activities must be related to project management topics that are substantially consistent with the knowledge areas and processes outlined in the latest edition of A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK^®Guide) and involve appropriate expert resources.

Source: Project Management Institute (PMI)

PMI Scheduling Professional (PMI-SP)

PMI’s Scheduling Professional (PMI-SP) credential is a response to project management’s increasing growth, complexity and diversity. Globally recognized and demanded, the PMI-SP fills the need for a specialist role in project scheduling.

It recognizes your unique expertise and competence to develop and maintain project schedules, while still possessing baseline knowledge skills in all areas of project management.

The PMI-SP demonstrates skill and competence in the specialized area of project scheduling. If you’re looking to fill the scheduling specialist role on your project team, hone your basic project management skills and showcase your specialized expertise to employers, the PMI-SP credential is for you.

To apply for the PMI-SP, you need to have either:

• A four-year degree (bachelor’s or the global equivalent), with at least 3,500 hours of project scheduling experience and 30 hours of project scheduling education.
  
  OR
• A secondary diploma (high school or the global equivalent) with at least 5,000 hours of project scheduling experience and 40 hours of project scheduling education.

To apply for the PMI-SP, register and log in to PMI online system to get started. A printable PMI-SP application form is also available.

As part of PMI’s Continuing Certification Requirements program, a PMI-SP credential holder will need to earn 30 PDUs in the specialized area of project scheduling per three-year cycle. To learn more about the program, what are PDUs, how to earn and claim them, as well as step-by-step instructions on how to renew your certification, watch the CCR video. You can also reference the latest PMI-SP Handbook found on PMI.org.

Source: Project Management Institute (PMI)

PMI Risk Management Professional (PMI-RMP)

PMI’s Risk Management Professional (PMI-RMP) credential is a response to project management’s increasing growth, complexity and diversity. Globally recognized and demanded, the PMI-RMP^® fills the need for a specialist role in project risk management.

It recognizes your unique expertise and competency in assessing and identifying project risks, mitigating threats and capitalizing on opportunities, while still possessing a baseline knowledge and practical application in all areas of project management.

The PMI-RMP demonstrates skill and competence in the specialized area of project risk management. If you’re looking to fill the risk management specialist role on your project team, hone your basic project management skills and showcase your specialized expertise to employers, the PMI-RMP credential is for you.

To apply for the PMI-RMP, you need to have either:

• A four-year degree (bachelor’s or the global equivalent), with at least 3,000 hours of project risk management experience and 30 hours of project risk management education.
  
  OR
• A secondary diploma (high school or the global equivalent) with at least 4,500 hours of project risk management experience and 40 hours of project risk management education.

To apply for the PMI-RMP, register and log in to PMI online system to get started. A printable PMI-RMP application form is also available.

As part of PMI’s Continuing Certification Requirements program, a PMI-RMP credential holder will need to earn 30 PDUs in the specialized area of project risk management per three-year cycle. To learn more about the program, what are PDUs, how to earn and claim them, as well as step-by-step instructions on how to renew your certification, watch the CCR video. You can also reference the latest PMI-RMP Handbook found on PMI.org

Source: Project Management Institute (PMI)

PMI Agile Certified Practitioner (PMI-ACP)

The PMI-ACP recognizes knowledge of agile principles, practices and tools and techniques across agile methodologies. If you use agile practices in your projects, or your organization is adopting agile approaches to project management, the PMI-ACP certification may be right for you.

The use of agile as an approach to managing projects has been increasing dramatically over the last several years. Gartner predicts that by the end of 2012, agile development methods will be used on 80% of all software development projects. PMI’s research has shown that the use of agile has tripled from December 2008 to May 2011. Furthermore, research demonstrates the value that agile can have in decreasing product defects, improving team productivity, and increasing delivery of business value. The PMI-ACP is positioned to recognize and validate knowledge of this important approach.

If you are working in organizations using agile to manage projects, the PMI-ACP can provide an opportunity to demonstrate your knowledge of agile practices. The PMI-ACP is not limited to project managers or Project Management Professional (PMP)^® credential holders; individuals with experience working on agile project teams can apply.

Practitioners who are seeking to:

• Demonstrate to employers their level of professionalism in agile practices of project management.
• Increase their professional versatility in both Waterfall and agile techniques.
• Hold a certification that is more credible than existing entry-level, training or exam-only based offerings.

To apply for the PMI-ACP, you need to meet the following requirements:

PMI Agile Certification Eligibility Requirements
Requirement	Description
General Project Experience	2,000 hours working on project teams These hours must be earned within the last 5 years Active PMP® or PgMP® will satisfy this requirement
Agile Project Experience	1500 hours working on agile project teams or with agile methodologies These hours are in addition to the 2,000 hours required in “general project experience” These hours must be earned within the last 3 years
Training in Agile Practices	21 contact hours Hours must be earned in agile practices
Examination	Tests knowledge of agile fundamentals

To apply for the PMI-ACP, register and log in to get started. A printable PMI-ACP printable application form is also available.

As part of PMI’s Continuing Certification Requirements (CCR) program, a PMI-ACP credential holder will need to earn 30 PDUs in agile project management per three-year cycle. To learn more about the program, what are PDUs, how to earn and claim them, as well as step-by-step instructions on how to renew your certification, watch the CCR video. You can also reference the latest PMI-ACP Handbook found on PMI.org

Source: Project Management Institute (PMI)

Program Management Professional (PgMP)

PMI’s Program Management Professional (PgMP) credential recognizes the advanced experience and skill of program managers. Globally recognized and demanded, the PgMP demonstrates your proven competency to oversee multiple, related projects and their resources to achieve strategic business goals.

PgMP credential holders oversee the success of a program, grouping related projects together to realize organizational benefits not available if they were managed separately. It’s the perfect fit if you define projects, assign project managers and oversee programs.

If you’re a program manager looking to demonstrate a proven ability to manage complex, multiple projects and align results to organizational goals; increase your visibility and value with your organization; and separate yourself in the eyes of employers, the PgMP credential is for you.

To apply for the PgMP, you need to have either:

• A four year degree (bachelor’s or the global equivalent), with at least four years of project management experience and four years of program management experience.
  
  OR
• A secondary diploma (high school or the global equivalent), with at least four years of project management experience and seven years of program management experience.

If you have not gained enough experience in project and program management to meet these eligibility requirements, consider the Project Management Professional (PMP) credential.

To apply for the PgMP, register and log in to our online system to get started. A printable PgMP application form is also available.

As part of PMI’s Continuing Certification Requirements program, a PgMP credential holder will need to earn 60 PDUs per three-year cycle. To learn more about the program, what are PDUs, how to earn and claim them, as well as step-by-step instructions on how to renew your certification, watch the CCR video. You can also reference the latest PgMP Handbook found on PMI.org.

Source: Project Management Institue (PMI)

Project Management Professional (PMP)

PMI’s Project Management Professional (PMP) credential is the most important industry-recognized certification for project managers. Globally recognized and demanded, the PMP demonstrates that you have the experience, education and competency to successfully lead and direct projects.

This recognition is seen through increased marketability to employers and higher salary; according to the PMI Project Management Salary Survey–Seventh Edition, certification positively impacts project manager salaries.

The PMP recognizes demonstrated competence in leading and directing project teams. If you’re an experienced project manager looking to solidify your skills, stand out to employers and maximize your earning potential, the PMP credential is the right choice for you.

To apply for the PMP, you need to have either:

• A four-year degree (bachelor’s or the global equivalent) and at least three years of project management experience, with 4,500 hours leading and directing projects and 35 hours of project management education.
  
  OR
• A secondary diploma (high school or the global equivalent) with at least five years of project management experience, with 7,500 hours leading and directing projects and 35 hours of project management education.

If you do not meet the PMP eligibility requirements, you may want to look at the Certified Associate in Project Management (CAPM) certification.

 To apply for the PMP, register and log in to PMI online system to get started. A printable PMP application form is also available.

As part of PMI’s Continuing Certification Requirements program, a PMP credential holder will need to earn 60 PDUs per three-year cycle. To learn more about the program, what are PDUs, how to earn and claim them, as well as step-by-step instructions on how to renew your certification, watch the CCR video. You can also reference the latest PMP Handbook found on PMI.org

Source: Project Management Institute (PMI)

Certified Associate in Project Management (CAPM)

PMI’s Certified Associate in Project Management (CAPM)^® is a valuable entry-level certification for project practitioners. Designed for those with little or no project experience, the CAPM^® demonstrates your understanding of the fundamental knowledge, terminology and processes of effective project management.

Whether you’re a student, new to project management, changing careers, or already serving as a subject matter expert on project teams, the CAPM can get your career on the right path or take it to the next level.

If you’re a less experienced project practitioner looking to demonstrate your commitment to project management, improve your ability to manage larger projects and earn additional responsibility, and stand out to potential employers, the CAPM certification is right for you.

To apply for the CAPM, you need to have:

• A secondary diploma (high school or the global equivalent)
  
  AND
• At least 1,500 hours experience

        OR

• 23 hours of project management education by the time you sit for the exam.

If you have gained experience leading and directing projects, you may want to see if you are ready for the Project Management Professional (PMP) credential.

To apply for the CAPM, register and log in to PMI online system to get started. A printable CAPM application form is also available.

As a CAPM certification holder, you do not need to earn PDUs. Instead, you take a re-exam before the end of your five-year certification cycle.

Source: http://www.pmi.org

PMI Certifications Overview

Project Management Institute (PMI) offers a comprehensive certification program for project practitioners of all education and skill levels. Currently consisting of six credentials, the program demonstrates both your commitment to the profession and your expertise through certifying education, experience and competency. Rigorously developed by project managers, PMI certifications ensure that you and your projects excel.

As project management is one of the top skillsets demanded by organizations around the world, this is more important now than ever before. One-fifth of the world’s GDP, or more than $12 trillion, is spent on projects. And with many skilled practitioners leaving or scheduled to leave the workforce due to retirement — a trend the Society of Human Resources (SHRM) identifies as having a major strategic impact for 64% of organizations worldwide — there is a great demand for knowledgeable project managers

When these opportunities arise, certification helps make sure that you’ll be ready. There are already more than 460,000 PMI credential holders around the world and in every industry, from healthcare, telecommunications and finance to IT and construction.

The 2010 PMI Pulse of the Profession study found that organizations with more than 35% PMP certified project managers had better project performance. And according to a 2007 PricewaterhouseCoopers survey, 80% of high-performing projects use a credentialed project manager. Make sure you’re one of them by earning a PMI certification.

The decision to earn a project management certification is a big one, so make sure you choose one that best fits your current expertise and your future career plans.

1. Certified Associate in Project Management (CAPM)
2. Project Management Professional (PMP)
3. Program Management Professional (PgMP)
4. PMI Agile Certified Practitioner (PMI-ACP)
5. PMI Risk Management Professional (PMI-RMP)
6. PMI Scheduling Professional (PMI-SP)

You can apply for any certification that matches your qualifications, and no certification serves as a prerequisite for another.

Source: Project Management Institute (PMI)

Six Sigma Blackbelt Skill Sets

Blackbelt is one of the two key players in any Six Sigma project. The blackbelt is the project leader and directs all activity in the Six Sigma project. Another key player is the organizational champion or the chief sponsor of the project that has ultimate responsibility for successful completion on time and within budget.

The following skill sets are required to be a successful blackbelt:

• Management and Leadership
  Blackbelt must command both the authority and the responsibility to guide large-scale projects. Project management and leadership go hand in hand. Stakeholders, team members, and the project champion expect the blackbelt to be skilled in the use of the project management methods and techniques.
• Decision Making
  On sigma projects, countless decisions must be made.  To make sound, timely decisions, the blackbelt has to have a firm grasp of all aspects of the project at all times. He or she must be able to balance costs, time, and results; prevent budget slippage and scope creep; and appropriately allocate resources if a project falls behind schedule.
• Communication
  Keeping others informed of activities and results can make the difference between perceived success and perceived failure of a project. The following are important areas in which the blackbelt's communication skills are needed:
  - Guiding team efforts at each step of the six sigma process.
  - Creating and maintaining work schedules.
  - Arranging and leading project team meetings.
  - Sharing project successes and results with upper management, the project champion, and other key stakeholders.
• Team Building and Negotiation
  Blackbelts must continually build relationship among the various stakeholders: management, customers, team members, the champion, and suppliers. Power is granted only to a blackbelt who builds these relationships. An effective blackbelt must continually negotiate authority to move a project forward. That authority depends solely on his or her ability to build a strong team among internal and external players.
• Planning, Scheduling, and Acting
  Sigma project management consists of the same elements as in other projects. These include establishing objectives, breaking jobs into well-defined tasks, charting work sequences, scheduling, budgeting, coordinating a team, and team communications. The blackbelt must therefore be proficient in planning effectively and acting efficiently. Balancing the interrelationship between planning and scheduling is critical to project success.
• Focus
  Six Sigma projects may include several major activities on which different people work simultaneously. The project leader can easily get lost in the day-to-day details of specific tasks and lose sight of the big picture. Successful blackbelts jump back and forth between all facets of the identified project tasks.
• Interpersonal Interaction
  To be a perceived as a leader, the blackbelt must be regarded as honest, capable, dependable, and personable. It is important for the blackbelt to build a positive relationship with the project champion and other key stakeholders. Effective interpersonal relationship skills are necessary to create a unified team from individuals with various backgrounds.
  

Ethical Behavior

Ethics is defined both as a set of principles of right conduct and as a theory or a system of moral values. The word is derived from the Greek word "ethikos" which relates to the character or implied good character of something. Interestingly, another source links the meaning of this word to the description of a course of action "arising from habit". This might be the ideal of what a good application of ethical behavior should become.

While ethics is generally used to refer to the principles of good conduct, the closely related term morals is most often used to describe the imputed nature (good or bad) of these rules. While ethics usually concerns itself with the rules of right conduct, morality is more concerned with the judgment of goodness and badness in human character. Ethical behavior then is seen as one that conforms to established rules of right behavior, while morality is more concerned with the philosophical consideration of why this behavior is right or wrong.

Because ethical behavior is related to rules of behavior, there must be a defined set of rules. These rules are generally referred to as a "code of ethics" or a "code of conduct". Codes of ethics or conduct are as old as human narration. One of the first of these types of codes, the code of Hammurabi, is a set of codified laws that date back to around 1790 BC. Additionally, coded rules for human behavior can be seen in every example of religious and moral writing dating back as far as the history of writing itself.

The importance of these codes of behavior is noted by both their ubiquity and the heavy reliance on them by civilized societies. Indeed, many sources affirm that civilized society would not have developed without standard codes of ethics. The characteristics that many of these codes have in common have even been used to rationalize the position that ethical principles are an integral part of the human psyche. An even stronger position is that these moral principles are a naturally recognized part of every person. Whether this is true or not is a question best left to the philosophers. What can be established from a practical standpoint, however, is that ethical principles and the codes they establish have extreme importance in stabilizing society, improving human relationships, enhancing business, and improving human character.

Ethical behavior can be found in human experience every time a followed set of rules leads to productive results. As a contrast, unethical behaviors are destructive to personal and business relationships.

ETHICAL BEHAVIORS ARE:

• responsible
• respectful
• fair
• honest
• moral
• legal
• professional
• confidential (when required)
• consistent
• transparent
• evaluative and adaptive
• culturally appropriate
• relationship building
• enablers of integrity
• respectful of personal boundaries

UNETHICAL BEHAVIORS INCLUDE:

• immoral acts
• illegal acts
• dishonesty
• disrespectfulness
• irresponsibility
• unfairness
• misrepresenting facts
• violating confidentiality
• working without the appropriate qualifications
• prejudicial and discriminatory actions
• inappropriate personal relationships
• not following rules or procedures
• bribery, corruption, and graft
• inappropriate and childish behaviors
• theft, plagiarizing, and copyright infringement
• intimidation, harassment, and abuse
• false or inaccurate reporting
• inappropriate physical contact (sexual or violence)
• sexual harassment
• inappropriate use of authority
• slander and gossip
• unprofessionalism

Six Sigma Principles

Organizations use Six Sigma principles to improve quality, decrease costs, and better meet customer needs. In the book "The Six Sigma Way", define Six Sigma as "a comprehensive and flexible system for achieving, sustaining and maximizing business success. Six Sigma is uniquely driven by close understanding of customer needs, disciplined use of facts, data, and statistical analysis, and diligent attention for managing, improving, and reinventing business process".

Six Sigma's target for perfection is the achievement of no more than 3.4 defects, errors, or mistakes per million opportunities. This target number is explained in more detail later in this section. An organization can apply the Six Sigma principles to the design and production of a product, a Help Desk, or other customer-service process.

Projects that use Six Sigma principles for quality control normally follow a five-phase improvement process called DMAIC (pronounced de-MAY-ic), which stands for Define, Measure, Analyze,Improve, and Control. DMAIC is a systematic, closed-loop process for continued improvement that is scientific and fact based. The following are brief descriptions of each phase of the DMAIC improvement process:

1. Define: Define the problem/opportunity, process, and customer requirements. Important tools used in this phase include a project charter, a description of customer requirements, process maps, and Voice of the Customer (VOC) data. Examples of VOC data include complaints, surveys, comments, and market research that represent the views and needs of the organization's customers.
2. Measure: Define measures, then collect, compile, and display data. Measures are defined in terms of defects per opportunity.
3. Analyze: Describe process details to find improvement opportunities. A project team working on a Six Sigma project, normally referred to as a Six Sigma team, investigates and verifies data to prove the suspected root causes of quality problems and substantiates the problem statement. An important tool in this phase is the Fishbone or Ishikawa diagram.
4. Improve: Generate solutions and ideas for improving the problem. A final solution is verified with the project sponsor, and the Six Sigma team develops a plan to pilot test the solution. The Six Sigma team reviews the results of the pilot test to refine the solution, if needed, and then implements the solution where appropriate.
5. Control: Track and verify the stability of the improvements and the predictability of the solution. Control charts are one tool used in the control phase.
   

Project Management Knowledge Areas

Project management knowledge areas describe the key competencies that project managers mus develop. There are nine knowledge areas of project management. The four core knowledge areas of project management include project scope, time, cost, and quality management. These are core knowledge areas because they lead to specific project objectives. Brief descriptions of each core knowledge area are as follows:

• Project scope management, involves defining and managing all the work required to complete the project successfully.
• Project time management, includes estimating how long it will take to complete the work, developing an acceptable project schedule, and ensuring timely completion of the project.
• Project cost management, consists of preparing and managing the budget for the project.
• Project quality management, ensures that the project will satisfy the stated or implied needs for which it was undertaken.

The four facilitating knowledge areas of project management are human resource, communications, risk, and procurement management. These are called facilitating areas because they are the processes through which the project objectives are achieved. Brief descriptions of each facilitating knowledge area are as follows:

• Project human resource management, is concerned with making effective use of the people involved with the project.
• Project communications management, involves generating, collecting, disseminating, and storing project information.
• Project risk management, includes identifying, analyzing, and responding to risks related to the project.
• Project procurement management, involves acquiring or procuring goods and services for a project from outside the performing organization.

Project integration management, the ninth knowledge area, is an overarching function that affects and is affected by all of the other knowledge areas. Project managers must have knowledge and skills in all nine of these areas.

Project Management Offices

The concept of a project management office, sometimes referred to as the PMO, has been around for several years. You’ll find that many organizations are establishing PMOs in many different forms. PMOs might also be called project offices or program management offices. The PMO is usually a centralized organizational unit that oversees the management of projects and programs throughout the organization. The most common reason a company starts a project management office is to establish and maintain procedures and standards for project management methodologies.

In some organizations, project managers and team members might report directly to the PMO and are assigned to projects as they are initiated. In other organizations, the PMO provides support functions only for projects and trains others in project management procedures and techniques. Still others, depending on their size and function, have experts available that assist project managers in project planning, estimating, and business assumption verification tasks. They serve as mentors to junior-level project managers and act as consultants to the senior project managers.

The PMO usually has responsibility for maintaining and archiving project documentation for future reference. This office compares project goals with project progress and gives feedback to the project teams. It also measures the project performance of active projects and suggests corrective actions. The PMO evaluates completed projects for their adherence to the project plan and asks questions like “Did the project meet the time frames established?” and “Did it stay within budget?” and “Was the quality acceptable?”

Project management offices are becoming more common in organizations today, if for no other reason than to serve as a collection point for project documentation. Some PMOs are fairly sophisticated and prescribe the standards and methodologies to be used in all project phases across the enterprise. Still others provide all these functions and also offer project management consulting services. However, the establishment of a PMO is not required in order for you to apply good project management practices to your next project.

Understanding the Project Environment

Virtually all projects are planned and implemented in a social, economic, and environmental context, and have intended and unintended positive and/or negative impacts. The project team should consider the project in its cultural, social, international, political, and physical environmental contexts.

• Cultural and social environment. The team needs to understand how the project affects people and how people affect the project. This may require an understanding of aspects of the economic, demographic, educational, ethical, ethnic, religious, and other characteristics of the people whom the project affects or who may have an interest in the project. The project manager should also examine the organizational culture and determine whether project management is recognized as a valid role with accountability and authority for managing the project.
• International and political environment. Some team members may need to be familiar with applicable international, national, regional, and local laws and customs, as well as the political climate that could affect the project. Other international factors to consider are time-zone differences, national and regional holidays, travel requirements for face-to-face meetings, and the logistics of teleconferencing.
• Physical environment. If the project will affect its physical surroundings, some team members should be knowledgeable about the local ecology and physical geography that could affect the project or be affected by the project.

Application Area Knowledge, Standards and Regulations

Application areas are categories of projects that have common elements significant in such projects, but are not needed or present in all projects. Application areas are usually defined in terms of:

• Functional departments and supporting disciplines, such as legal, production and inventory management, marketing, logistics, and personnel
• Technical elements, such as software development or engineering, and sometimes a specific kind of engineering, such as water and sanitation engineering or construction engineering
• Management specializations, such as government contracting, community development, and new product development
• Industry groups, such as automotive, chemical, agriculture, and financial services.

Each application area generally has a set of accepted standards and practices, often codified in regulations. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) differentiates between standards and regulations as follows:

• A standard is a document established by consensus and approved by a recognized body that provides, for common and repeated use, rules, guidelines or characteristics for activities or their results, aimed at the achievement of the optimum degree of order in a given context. Some examples of standards are computer disk sizes and the thermal stability specifications of hydraulic fluids.
• A regulation is a government-imposed requirement, which specifies product, process or service characteristics, including the applicable administrative provisions, with which compliance is mandatory. Building codes are an example of regulations.

There is an overlap in the concepts of standards and regulations that cause confusion. For example:

• Standards often begin as guidelines that describe a preferred approach and later, with widespread adoption, become generally accepted as if they were regulations
• Different organizational levels can mandate compliance, such as when a government agency, the management of the performing organization, or the project management team establishes specific policies and procedures.

Reference: A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK ® Guide)

Project Phases and Project Life Cycles

All projects are divided into phases, and all projects, large or small, have a similar life cycle structure. At a minimum, a project will have a beginning or initiation phase, an intermediate phase or phases, and an ending phase. The number of phases depends on the project complexity and the industry. For example, information technology projects might progress through phases such as requirements, design, program, test, and implement. All the collective phases the project progresses through in concert are called the project life cycle.

The end of each phase allows the project manager, stakeholders, and project sponsor the opportunity to determine whether the project should continue to the next phase. In order to progress to the next phase, the deliverable from the phase before it must be reviewed for accuracy and approved. As each phase is completed, it’s handed off to the next phase. You’ll look at handoffs and progressions through these phases next.

Handoffs
Project phases evolve through the life cycle in a series of phase sequences called handoffs, or technical transfers. The end of one phase sequence typically marks the beginning of the next. However, the completion of one phase does not automatically signal the beginning of the next phase. For example, in the construction industry, feasibility studies often take place in the beginning phase of a project.

The purpose of the feasibility study is to determine whether the project is worth undertaking and whether the project will be profitable to the organization. A feasibility study is a preliminary assessment of the viability of the project; the viability or perhaps marketability of the product, service, or result of the project; and the project’s value to the organization. It might also determine whether the product, service, or result of the project is safe and meets industry or governmental standards and regulations. The completion and approval of the feasibility study triggers the beginning of the requirements phase, where requirements are documented and then handed off to the design phase, where blueprints are produced. The feasibility might also show that the project is not worth pursuing and the project is then terminated; thus, the next phase never begins.

Phase Completion
You will recognize phase completion because each phase has a specific deliverable, or multiple deliverables, that marks the end of the phase. A deliverable is an output that must be produced, reviewed, and approved to bring the phase or project to completion. Deliverables are tangible and can be measured and easily proved. For instance, a hypothetical deliverable produced in the beginning phase of a construction industry project would be the feasibility study.

Deliverables might also include things such as design documents, project budgets, blueprints, project schedules, prototypes, and so on. This analysis allows those involved with the opportunity to determine whether the project should continue to the next phase. The feasibility study might show that environmental impacts of an enormous nature would result if the construction project were undertaken at the proposed location. Based on this information, a go or no-go decision can be made at the end of this phase. The end of a phase gives the project manager the ability to discover, address, and take corrective action against errors discovered during the phase.

Sometimes phases are overlapped to shorten or compress the project schedule. This is called
fast tracking. Fast tracking means that a later phase is started prior to completing and approving the phase, or phases, that come before it. This technique is used to shorten the overall duration of the project.

Most projects follow phase sequences within a project life cycle and, as a result, have the following characteristics in common: In the beginning phase, which is where the project is initiated, costs are low, and few team members are assigned to the project. As the project progresses, costs and staffing increase and then taper off at the closing phase. The potential that the project will come to a successful ending is lowest at the beginning of the project; its chance for success increases as the project progresses through its phases and life cycle stages. Risk is highest at the beginning of the project and gradually decreases the closer the project comes to completion.

Stakeholders have the greatest chance of influencing the project and the characteristics of the product, service, or result of the project in the beginning phases and have less and less influence as the project progresses. This same phenomenon exists within the project management processes as well.

Project Characteristics

1. Temporary

Temporary means that every project has a definite beginning and a definite end. The end is reached when the project's objectives have been achieved, or it becomes clear that the project objectives will not or cannot be met, or the need for the project no longer exists and the project is terminated. Temporary does not necessarily mean short in duration; many projects last for several years. In every case, however, the duration of a project is finite. Projects are not ongoing efforts.

In addition, temporary does not generally apply to the product, service or result created by the project. Most projects are undertaken to create a lasting outcome. For example, a project to erect a national monument will create a result expected to last centuries. Projects also may often have intended and unintended social, economic and environmental impacts that far outlast the projects themselves.

The temporary nature of projects may apply to other aspects of the endeavor as well:

• The opportunity or market window is usually temporary some projects have a limited time frame in which to produce their product or service.
• The project team, as a working unit, seldom m created for the sole purpose of performing the project will perform that project, and then the team is disbanded and the team members reassigned when the project ends.

2. Unique Products, Services, or Results

A project creates unique deliverables, which are products, services, or results. Projects can create:

• A product or artifact that is produced, is quantifiable, and can be either an end item in itself or a component item
• A capability to perform a service, such as business functions supporting production or distribution
• A result, such as outcomes or documents. For example, a research project develops knowledge that can be used to determine whether or not a trend is present or a new process will benefit society.

Uniqueness is an important characteristic of project deliverables. For example, many thousands of office buildings have been developed, but each individual facility different owner, different design, different location, different contractors, and so on. The presence of repetitive elements does not change the fundamental uniqueness of the project work.

3. Progressive Elaboration

Progressive elaboration is a characteristic of projects that accompanies the concepts of temporary and unique. Progressive elaboration means developing in steps, and continuing by increments 1 . For example, the project scope will be broadly described early in the project and made more explicit and detailed as the project team develops a better and more complete understanding of the objectives and deliverables. Progressive elaboration should not be confused with scope creep (Section 5.5).

Progressive elaboration of a project's specifications needs to be carefully coordinated with proper project scope definition, particularly if the project is performed under contract. When properly defined, the scope of the proj the work to be d ld be controlled as the project and product specifications are progressively elaborated.

The following examples illustrate progressive elaboration in two different application areas:

• Development of a chemical processing plant begins with process engineering to define the characteristics of the process. These characteristics are used to design the major processing units. This information becomes the basis for engineering design, which defines both the detailed plant layout and the mechanical characteristics of the process units and ancillary facilities. All of this results in design drawings that are elaborated to produce fabrication and construction drawings. During construction, interpretations and adaptations are made as needed and are subject to proper approval. This further elaboration of the deliverables is captured in as-built drawings, and final operating adjustments are made during testing and turnover.
• The product of an economic development project may initially be defined as: Improve the quality of life of the lowest income residents of community As the project proceeds, the products may be described more specifically as, for exam and water to 500 low-income residents in community xt round of progressive elaboration might focus exclusively on increasing agriculture production and marketing, with provision of water deemed to be a secondary priority to be initiated once the agricultural component is well under way.

Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) ® Guide

The primary purpose of the PMBOK ® Guide is to identify that subset of the Project Management Body of Knowledge that is generally recognized as good practice. means to provide a general overview as opposed to an exhaustive means that the knowledge and practices described are applicable to most projects most of the time, and that there is there is general agreement that the correct application of these skills, tools, and techniques can enhance the chances of success over a wide range of different projects. Good practice does not mean that the knowledge described should always be applied uniformly on all projects; the project management team is responsible for determining what is appropriate for any given project.

The PMBOK ® Guide also provides and promotes a common lexicon for discussing, writing, and applying project management. Such a standard lexicon is an essential element of a profession.

• The Project Management Institute uses this document as a foundational, but not sole, project management reference for its professional development programs including: Project Management Professional (PMP®) certification
• Project management education and training offered by PMI Registered Education Providers (R.E.P.s)
• Accreditation of educational programs in project management.

As a foundational reference, this standard is neither comprehensive nor all- inclusive. Appendix D discusses application area extensions, while Appendix E lists sources of further information on project management.

This standard addresses only single projects and the project management processes that are generally recognized as good practice. There are other standards on organizational project management maturity, project manager competency, and other topics that address what is generally recognized as good practices in those areas. Some of the material in those other standards impacts single projects. The other standards should be consulted for additional information and understanding of the broader context in which projects are accomplished.

Project management standards do not address all details of every topic. Topics
are not mentioned should not be considered unimportant. There are several reasons
a topic may not be included in a standard: it may be included within some other related standard; it may be so general that there is nothing uniquely applicable to project management; or there is insufficient consensus on a topic. The lack of consensus means there are variations in the profession regarding how, when or where within the organization, as well as who within the organization, should perform that specific project management activity.

The organization or the project management team must decide how those activities are going to be addressed in the context and the circumstances of the project for which the PMBOK ® Guide is being used.

Reference: A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK ® Guide) Four Edition

Project Management Body of Knowledge

The definition from Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide):

A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide) is a recognized standard for the project management profession. A standard is a formal document that describes established norms, methods, processes, and practices. As with other professions such as law, medicine, and accounting, the knowledge contained in this standard evolved from the recognized good practices of project management practitioners who contributed to the development of this standard.

The PMBOK® Guide provides guidelines for managing individual projects. It defines project management and related concepts and describes the project management life cycle and the related processes.

Dealing with Performance Problems

Leaders can help their employees improve their performance by using a progressive discipline system.

To help an employee with a performance problem, you should:

• get to the heart of the problem
• respond to the problem by preparing an action plan
• use discipline to deal with the problem.

Get to the heart of the problem
When there is a problem with an employee's performance, you should get to the heart of the problem before you attempt to correct it. This is important because the cause of a performance problem is not always apparent.

To correct the problem, you need to address the cause. To determine what is causing a performance problem, you should ask the following questions:

• Does the employee understand the goals and standards of the job?
• Does the employee get timely feedback on his or her performance?
• Did the employee get adequate training for the job?
• Does the employee demonstrate competency in other tasks?
• Is the employee capable of doing the work?
• Does the employee have the resources to do a good job?

Respond to the problem by preparing an action plan
Once you have determined the cause of a performance problem, you should meet with the employee involved to discuss possible solutions.

When you do this, don't get personally involved in the problem or apologize for having to deal with it. You want to help the employee succeed. Find out what the employee would like to see as an outcome. Then set up a plan of action.

Begin with the assumption that any corrective action you take should first and foremost help improve an employee's performance.

The following gives more about preparing an action plan:

• Make sure that employees with performance problems have a clear understanding of their jobs.
• Present clear information about how the job should be done, clarify each step, and emphasize the major responsibilities.
• Provide training if necessary.
• Make your employees responsible for the outcome of this process. Ask them to check back with you frequently.
• Encourage your employees.

Use discipline to deal with the problem
When it becomes necessary to take disciplinary measures, you should use a four-step procedure. Because these steps sometimes lead to termination, you should ensure that you have all of the facts and use the same procedure for all employees.
It's also important that you do not allow your judgment to be clouded by prior, unrelated problems. There is more information on the steps below:

• In step one, verbally remind the employee about the problem, and state that the problem is now in the formal disciplinary stage.
• Go to step two if the problem continues. Give the employee formal written notification of the continuing problem.
• If these steps fail, move to step three, in which the employee is given one day of paid leave to decide whether to stay and improve or leave. This demonstrates the organization's desire to give the employee control over whether to stay or leave.
• Step four is termination. Having documented all the previous steps in the employee's file, set a specific time for an interview. Inform the employee of your decision. Keep the meeting simple and short. The employee had every opportunity to improve. There is no need for further discussion.

By following well-thought-out steps in correcting performance problems, a leader can keep employees motivated and effective. Do you have procedures in place that make discipline a progressive measure?

Identifying Performance Standards

Performance standards are target measurements for achieving quality in work. The guidelines for setting performance standards follow these three perspectives:

1. establishing criteria for quality-performance standards
2. clarifying quality-performance standard
3. providing positive reinforcement and recognition for quality-performance standards

Establishing criteria for quality-performance standards
Before you set performance standards, it's important to establish your criteria. You should consider quality, quantity, time, and customer requirements as criteria for establishing performance standards.

Clarifying quality-performance standard
You should clarify your performance standards once you have established your criteria for setting them. It's important to involve your employees in this process. The following provide more information on how to do this:

• Once you establish your criteria for setting performance standards, you should describe your criteria to your employees. You should work with your employees to prioritize the tasks according to the customer requirements, and the time, quantity and level of quality needed.
• You should meet with your employees to record all the tasks and standards that are required to meet your criteria. To make your standards meaningful, they should be measurable.
• You should develop a tracking system and hold regular one-on-one discussions with your employees about work in progress. Don't wait until you have problems to establish a tracking system.

Providing positive reinforcement and recognition for quality-performance standards
After you establish your criteria and clarify your performance standards, it's important to encourage your employees to follow them. You should:

• provide positive reinforcement for following standards
• recognize those who adhere to the standards.

Performance standards are target measurements for achieving quality in work. You can use them to help your organization.

Identifying Performance Problems

In most organizations, it's essential that employees maintain certain performance standards in order for the department to meet its quotas.

When quotas are not met, you must determine why. What are the reasons for poor performance that you must understand?

There are a number of reasons for poor performance. You'll approach these reasons from three different perspectives:

• the reasons for performance problems
• the elements of performance
• the attitude behind performance.

The reasons for performance problems
Most performance difficulties arise for four different reasons. These reasons are explained below:

• Employees' lack of knowledge prevents them from knowing what to do.
• Employees lack the aptitude to do what is required of them and therefore are not capable of completing tasks.
• Excessive interferences from processes, people, or technology can create a situation where employees are not allowed to do what is required of them.
• Finally, some performance problems are caused by employees refusing to do what's required of them. When there are no safety issues involved, this is usually a result of attitude problems.

The elements of performance
When you discover performance problems, what are you actually measuring these results against? There are seven elements of performance that help you target employees' achievements. These elements of performance are:

1. Goals: What do they need to achieve?
2. Standards: How are their achievements quantified?
3. Feedback: Do they have the guidance they need?
4. Competence: Have we properly trained them?
5. Opportunity: Do they have chances for advancement?
6. Means: Do they have the tools to do their job?
7. Motive: Do they have good reasons to want to do this?

A useful tool for analyzing performance is to chart the reasons for performance problems against the elements of performance. This can help you figure out how to specifically address each performance problem.

The attitude behind performance
Attitudes are often part of vicious cycles in which an attitude provides a mental excuse to behave in a certain way. Quite often, this behavior creates a result that reinforces the original attitude.

Attitudes are not always easy to change because they can come from so many different sources. Some are brought to work by employees, and some are formed as a result of things that happen in the work setting. The following provide more about the source of attitudes:

• personal background
• self-esteem
• prior experience
• unclear goals
• poor feedback
• lack of recognition
• nature of the work
• inadequate compensation.

Consider the principal causes for performance problems for addressing the problem areas in your workplace.

Understanding Communication Strategies

Many employees are expected to argue for themselves in order to promote the organization's interests through their own department.

But how do you monitor the strategies these people use to argue for their interests?

You can encourage people to use communicative strategies to resolve conflicts. You can also stress the importance of avoiding contentious strategies that result in division. To do this, considers these points:

• rules for open communications
• conflict-resolution methods
• avoiding contentious strategies.

Rules for open communications
When you hire someone for your department, or when meetings start to get out of hand, you could bring up a series of basic rules for open communication. These are communicative strategies. The following provide more about the elements of open communication:

• I statements: When discussing your feelings about an emotional situation, use statements such as, "I feel this way when this happens." It's non-accusatory and expresses what you feel.
• willingness: People on both sides of a disagreement need to indicate their willingness to resolve their differences.
• listening: Everyone needs to hear the speaker and acknowledge through verbal and nonverbal means that he or she is listening.
• restating: When it's your turn to speak in reply to what someone else has said, restate what you believe you heard him say. This helps eliminate misunderstandings.
• agreements: It's also important to point out what interests you have in common with those you disagree with. This sets an optimistic tone for possible agreements.
• requests: It's divisive to ask someone to stop doing something you don't like; however, it's OK to request a change of behavior, especially if you suggest alternatives.
• consistency: Be consistent with your verbal and nonverbal message.
• word choice: Be careful with the words you use when describing negative feelings. Try to choose noninflammatory language and tone down your emotions.

Conflict-resolution methods
There are other strategies you can use, but these strategies should be used as a last-resort tactic, when nothing else has worked. These strategies lie somewhere in between communicative and contentious.

The following provide more about these strategies:

• Giving in is an acceptable strategy when you won't suffer long-term harm. It can be an effective bargaining chip that lets you move on to a more important point.
• When it appears that a conflict is about to escalate, it's OK to break off or even give up on trying to resolve it.
• Avoiding a problem can be OK if time will take care of it. This is a difficult decision to make.
• In emergencies, when quick and decisive actions must be taken, when you must implement an unpopular decision, or when someone is playing games with you, it is OK to be abrupt.

Avoiding contentious strategies
It is very important to point out to the people in your group what you consider to be contentious strategies. The following provide more about these inappropriate tactics:

• Sometimes, when people try to become your new best friend, and flatter and compliment you, they may be trying to get you to make a decision against your interests.
• Inducing guilt is an inappropriate way to get someone to change her mind.
• Gamesmanship is the use of maneuvers that further your own position over others.
• Another contentious tactic is the use of threats.
• Side issue remarks are derogatory comments directed at your opponent.

To resolve a conflict with an employee, it's important to use appropriate communicative strategies and avoid contention. You should show willingness and consistency in resolving a conflict, use I statements and proper word choice, listen to and restate a message, find common ground and request a change of behavior.

If these strategies do not work, you should then use an appropriate last-resort strategy.

Understanding Cooperative Resolution

Conflict occurs in every organization.

Organizations that successfully manage conflict can do so by resolving it cooperatively.

There are two means that effective leaders use to reach cooperative conflict resolution. They:

• set preconditions to a cooperative resolution
• follow the steps to a cooperative resolution.

Set preconditions to a cooperative resolution
Whenever there is a conflict between your employees, it's important to set the preconditions for cooperative resolution before any attempt is made to resolve the conflict.

This will help both parties in a conflict to separate the problem from the people involved, and work together for a mutually beneficial solution. Begin by meeting separately with each side and establishing the following preconditions for cooperative resolution.

Make certain that both parties understand that they can meet their own interests by helping others meet theirs.

Encourage both parties to come up with an alternate plan. It's important that neither side enter negotiations with a rigid mindset.

Make sure that both parties separate the people involved in the dispute from the dispute itself. Work-related problems that become personal disputes are more difficult to resolve.

Follow the steps to a cooperative resolution
Once the preconditions for a cooperative resolution are set, a leader should get the parties in a conflict to sit down together and follow the steps for a cooperative resolution. These are the four steps that a leader should follow:

1. Conflicts often arise over simple misunderstandings. Taking time to eliminate all misunderstandings between parties in a conflict can make it much easier to reach a cooperative resolution.
2. The second step is identifying and analyzing all issues and interests. This is an important step because it is easy to overlook issues in a conflict, yet difficult to find solutions if all issues are not identified.
3. In the third step of the cooperative resolution process, leaders should help employees find integrative solutions. This type of solution allows both parties to win. As you negotiate for a mutually beneficial solution, you should make sure that neither party dominates and that both remain flexible.
4. If unable to find a successful integrative solution, a leader should proceed to the fourth step. This involves revisiting each of the steps in an attempt to find a solution. If still unsuccessful, the leader makes the final decision.

To resolve conflicts between employees, it is important to follow the steps for reaching a cooperative resolution. To do this, you should eliminate misunderstandings, analyze the issues and interests of both sides, and find solutions that benefit both parties.

If a cooperative resolution is not found after following these steps, you should revisit the previous steps. If a solution is still not reached after revisiting all the steps, you will have to make the decision yourself.

By applying a variety of methods, you can resolve the conflicts between your employees cooperatively. How could these skills contribute to your own leadership abilities and to the success of your organization?

Understanding Conflict

Conflicts among employees occur in every organization.

As an effective leader you need to know how to deal with conflict.

Understanding conflict means examining:

• the concept of conflict
• constructive conflict
• the escalation of conflict
• the psychological changes that accompany conflict
• the two primary reasons for conflict.

Constructive conflict
While we all know conflict when we feel it, most of us don't work with it well because we don't understand its dynamics. What are the inner workings of conflict?

Conflict is an everyday, naturally occurring fact of life. Without it, there is no progress, evolution, or art. Don't fear it; learn how to face it and work with it. It occurs when you believe that in order to get what you want, someone else won't be able to get what he or she wants.

The concept of conflict
The resolution of a problem can show the three ways conflict can be constructive. These are:

• when it leads to unity of purpose and collaboration
• when it leads to better decision making
• when it produces change.

The escalation of conflict
Many conflicts, however, turn destructive because they escalate out of control. Consider the following reasons that conflict escalates:

• Cooperation turns into accusations and threats.
• One issue becomes many.
• A specific issue gives way to general complaints.
• Consideration turns to getting even.
• More people begin to get involved.

The psychological changes that accompany conflict
There are a number of psychological changes that happen to people when they get involved in conflicts. These are explained in detail below:

• When you are in conflict, you develop selective perception, only seeing your own side of the story. You begin to look for evidence to prove you're right.
• Conflict can also cause you to create a self-fulfilling prophecy, where you create a worst-case scenario, and then get what you expect by acting as if it's going to happen.
• When conflict is played out, a complete communication breakdown occurs. Trust is rarely reestablished, and any polite conversation that follows is filled with tension and bitterness.

The two primary reasons for conflict
There are two primary reasons for conflict. One primary reason for conflict is that two people have different interests; they want different things. Another primary reason for conflict is two people have the same interests, which are in conflict; they believe only one of them can have what they want.

Exploring conflict resolution within your organization can improve the atmosphere in the workplace and lead to greater creativity and collaboration.

Understanding Listening Strategies

Listening is one of the most valuable skills a leader can have.

Many people assume that listening is a passive experience, but it actually requires active participation. There are a variety of methods for effective listening, including:

• using attentiveness, silence, and neutrality
• reflecting and summarizing
• sorting and patterning
• noting gaps and interruptions
• expressing feeling and testing for responsibility.

When people talk, they expect others to listen to them, but they generally give little thought to what this means. The following are some first steps to good listening:

• Focus your attention on the person who's talking. Maintain eye contact. If your body language says you're not interested, the person will sense it.
• Remain silent, except for recognition that you're following along, such as a semi-verbal "uh-huh" or a head nod. This says you're paying attention.
• Maintain a neutral frame of mind. This means not judging or attempting to control the conversation, not suggesting or correcting, and not praising or criticizing.

There are two other techniques for making people aware that you are paying attention. First, use reflective statements. These are words that echo important words or phrases that the patient uses. Second, summarize what you have just heard and repeat it back to the speaker.

You can also wait for a break in the narration, and then sort out and find patterns in their experiences. This can help to sort out the differences between symptoms and deeper problems.

Try to notice inconsistencies in narratives. What is left out of a conversation can be as helpful in analyzing a situation as what is included.

Toward the end of a conversation, you can encourage the speaker to step back from their story and summarize it for themselves.

Remember that effective listening requires active participation. You should use attentiveness, silence and neutrality when listening. It's important to use reflective statements and summarize the employee's message. You should also sort symptoms from deeper problems, note gaps and interruptions in your employee's story, encourage your employee to express feeling, and test for responsibility.

Understanding Good Questions

To accomplish your goals as a businessperson and leader, one of the best strategies is knowing how to ask key questions.

Key questioning strategies can help you:

• uncover the problem in front of you
• identify the purpose of your actions
• discover the premise you're following
• determine the resources you need
• determine customer interest
• gather the data you need.

One questioning strategy used by Japanese teachers of quality is the use of Why? They suggest asking this question five times to discover the underlying causes of a problem and then finding solutions.

Another key question is aimed at discovering the purpose of any action. For example, whenever someone suggests a new project or product, you could ask, "What is the purpose of this?"

You should also subject every suggestion or idea that is presented to a question concerning its premise. A premise is the belief or attitude that forms the basis of an assumption.

Every new project, idea, or suggestion that is presented to you requires effort and resources to be carried out. To help employees figure out how to convert these thoughts into actions, you should ask them questions about resources.

Occasionally, your employees will come to you with a suggestion that you know they have not researched. Instead of dismissing the idea, use questions designed to encourage employees to come up with the data they need.

You can maintain a thriving business by knowing how to ask good questions that engage your employees in the process of improvement.

Understanding Leadership through Questioning

One of the most important things that you can do to improve your company is to ask the right questions in the right way.

Questioning strategies that improve the way employees and production process work include:

• collaborating
• experimenting
• educating
• reviewing.

Collaborating
There are many different ways that leaders can approach working with their employees. In the old style of organizations, leaders would direct rather than collaborate.

Leaders who direct have a hard time learning to ask questions. They tell others what to do and pack unsolicited advice into their conversations with subordinates. On the other hand, leaders who collaborate with their team do so by asking questions and using what they discover to improve the way the team operates.

A good piece of advice is to learn the difference between opinions and facts. Employees and co-workers are much more likely to be drawn into dialog with someone who knows the difference.

Experimenting
Leaders who understand what they don't know take the experimenter approach, using questions to learn. Leaders who think they know everything use their opinions as facts and don't listen to those who actually know.

Educating
Another hallmark of leadership is educating. When teachers start giving advice, they have failed as teachers. When leaders spell out what they believe to be true, with no room for inquiry, they are telling others what to do. But when leaders use step-by-step questions designed to let others figure out answers for themselves, they are educating.

The trickiest questioning strategy has to be employed when there is something wrong with someone's work. In the old school of management, leaders often served as inspectors. When they found a mistake, they pointed it out. "This is a mistake," they'd say. This accusatory manner makes people defensive and works against positive solutions.

Reviewing
Leaders who use reviewing as a questioning strategy learn how to ask the questions that get others to see the flaws in their own work. "How can you stop this problem from occurring?" or "What can you do to track down the source of the problem?" are inquiries that encourage participation and involvement.

By using a variety of questioning strategies to involve others in the production process, you can significantly improve quality and efficiency at your organization.

Understanding Group Communications

Group communications are essential to successful organizations.

Leaders can improve group communication by:

1. increasing team communication
2. improving organizational communication
3. using informal communication networks.

Increasing team communication
There are a number of things you can do to improve the way your group shares information. Some of these are shown below:

• Use a variety of formats to get the team together to talk, including team meetings, informal chats, and scheduled informational discussions.
• Ensure everyone understands the purpose of these sessions.
• Ensure that the group understands how proud you are of their work.
• Some people in a group can be bashful about raising questions, so you could attempt to anticipate their needs when responding to others' questions.
• You could use newsletters, bulletin boards, and e-mail to communicate with your team.

Improving organizational communication
In addition to improving communications, it is important to contribute to the communications of the larger organization. The following are examples of how contributions to organizational communications could be made:

• Every organization needs a dependable internal communications program. In larger companies, someone is usually in charge of this. In smaller companies, it can be a collective function of leaders at all levels.
• Good organizational communication means that the members are well informed on all significant issues which affect them, including business challenges, policy changes, and operational and strategic issues.
• Other issues which are included in organizational communications include organizational structure, customer service, workplace improvements, and the use of information technology.
• Leaders should always be searching for ways to improve communications outside of their immediate realms. You are also responsible for correcting any misinformation about your subordinates or department.
• It's also necessary for a leader to actively communicate with other departments to discover information that you need but has not been given to you.
• Another way of improving communications among different groups is to suggest a shared function such as a potluck lunch or weekend social activity.

Using informal communication networks
Another means used to communicate is to use informal networks. This is not much different than what is commonly called the grapevine. Leaders can use this type of communication in the following ways:

• An informal network, or grapevine, can complement or detract from other group communications.
• Accept the fact that grapevines can't be eliminated and are very difficult to control. They are, however, easy to use.
• Talking informally or casually with your subordinates and others can provide you with a vast amount of information about your organization.
• As a leader, it's your responsibility to correct and dispel any incorrect information that you discover in the grapevine.

You can use a variety of methods to improve communications among your group and between your group and the rest of the organization. How can these techniques improve your own group communications?

Improving Personal Communication Skills

Improving leadership abilities is intrinsically connected to improving communication skills.

Factors that improve personal communications include the following:

• face-to-face communicating
• listening to others
• speaking well
• presenting effectively
• writing clearly

Most staff interactions, like most business communications, occur one-on-one and in small groups. You should try to increase the quality and quantity of these small encounters because they are the most effective means of delivering his message.

The following four suggestions can be used in this setting:

1. One key in getting people to come to you when they need your help is to be approachable. Do this by adjusting your speaking style to more closely resemble those to whom you're speaking.
   
   
2. Be understanding and sincere. Being empathetic towards others and trying to understand their motivations and concerns helps create a two-way relationship.
   
   
3. Consistency in the way you communicate to others improves communication. If your approach to others is erratic, this sends confusing and conflicting messages.
   
   
4. It's also valuable to repeat your important messages from time to time to make sure that they are received and understood. Also, having your instructions mirrored back to you helps when you're having a difficult time communicating with certain people.

In addition to the face-to-face communication skills, there are other skills that would improve communication abilities:

• Leaders should aim to spend more time listening than talking. This is an active, not passive process in which you try to understand the other person's perspective. Let your ears be the gateway to others' strengths and concerns.
  
  
• Leaders need to communicate clearly. Proper speech and grammar, along with easy-to-follow points are vital to your effectiveness. Seek help if this is a problem for you.
  
  
• Making presentations is part of being a leader. Being natural, using visual aids, and including humor are all part of good presentations. Rehearse with someone whose criticism you value.

Writing skills are another area that should be considered important to your development as a leader. Learning to write correctly takes time, effort, and a real commitment. The following are tips to improve your writing:

• Visit a library or bookstore to see the resources available. In addition, write whenever possible.
• Make note of the purpose and main points of your document before you begin to write it.
• Consider who will be reading what you write, what they know about the subject, and what you want them to do after they read the document.
• Avoid using phrases that make excuses, lack confidence, or suggest incompetence.
• Keep your language simple, use a minimum of jargon, or specialized words, and be as brief as possible.
• Reread what you've written at least twice and make whatever corrections or improvements you can.
• Have an assistant or associate review the document for effectiveness, clarity, and correctness before you send it.

Finally, you should learn to improve your awareness of what you communicate nonverbally.

People are naturally aware of your physical actions when they are contradicting or working against what you're saying. Tapping your pen out of nervousness, avoiding eye contact, or looking bored all work against effective communications.

On the other hand, you can use nonverbal communications to your advantage by relaxing, maintaining good posture, staying energetic, and directly addressing others. Videotaping one of your presentations can help you correct bad habits.

The continued success of your company is due, in part, to the effectiveness of your personal communication skills. Consider which of these skills would improve your abilities.

Understanding Clear Messages

For executives, communication is a critical part of leadership.

The essential elements of sending clear messages include:

1. conceiving your messages
2. sending your messages
3. monitoring your messages.

Conceiving your messages
There are a number of steps that you can follow to create a clear message. These are shown below:

1. The first step in creating a clear message is knowing why the message needs to be sent. You could be requesting information or asking for a specific action. Carefully consider the reason for your message before you craft it.
2. Focus on who it is you're contacting. The greater your awareness of that person and his or her concerns, the greater the effectiveness of your message.
3. Believe that the details of the message already exist within you. Learn how to let this information come to the fore, and distinguish between the details that are important and those that are extraneous.

Sending your messages
The second stage of communicating her message is choosing the means of delivering her message and actually sending it.

If the message dictates a personal delivery and you can't go yourself, consider a spoken form such as a messenger, a telephone call, or a videotape. However, if the message is nonpersonal, technical, or routine in nature, then consider delivering it via letter, e-mail, news release, or organizational publication.

Monitoring your messages
The last step that you have to consider before sending your message is how you are going to monitor the receipt of the information and whether or not it was understood.

The following are a few key ideas about following up after the message is sent:

• Set up a way to check whether the message was received, understood, and retained.
• If the recipient didn't receive the message, find out why and correct the problem.
• Make sure you have the attention of the person to whom you're sending the message.

By carefully following the steps to sending a clear message and understanding the key elements of the process, you can effectively communicate information.

The Benefits of a Risk Database

William Pollard, a businessman and author, once said, "Information is a source of learning. But unless it's organized, processed, and available to the right people in a format for decision making, it is a burden, not a benefit."

A risk database is a repository that can organize, process, and format the information that is collected and used in the risk management processes. The use of a risk database throughout a project's life cycle will make documented information easily accessible for important decision-making purposes.

Project risk information that you may need to store in a database could include agreements, current priorities, specifications, project plan changes, instructions, results, and other information depending on the nature of the project.

You must enter information into the database on a regular basis so that this information is up to date.

You can use a risk database not only for storing and retrieving data, but also for analysis. A database can sort information into categories and generate reports based on what you need to know.

The database can perform complicated calculations in seconds, which provides information that may help decision makers avoid mistakes. You can analyze project information for risks and alert team members about any emerging risks.

Over time, your company will gain experience in keeping track of project risks in a risk database. This documentation can be compiled for a single project or across similar projects, and be used as lessons learned for future projects. Prior to planning new projects, team members can search through the lessons learned to avoid making similar mistakes.

You can use a risk database to help you avoid mistakes and plan effectively for future projects. A risk database can organize and format information so that it is a learning source to help you make important project decisions.

Updating Risk Identification Checklists and Response Plans

Have you ever tried to follow a plan only to find that the plan wasn't up-to-date and contained inaccuracies? For a plan to be effective, it must be kept current. New information, changes, and corrections have to be made in a timely manner to prevent inappropriate actions being taken on inaccurate or outdated information.

When monitoring and controlling risks, documentation is especially important because project managers and teams use risk documentation to:

• track risks
• to identify new risks
• to plan additional risk responses
• to record any actions taken to control risks

If the information being acted on is not current, a new risk is introduced—the risk of acting on inaccurate or outdated information. To avoid this confusion, you must strive to keep all documents up to date.

Two of the most important documents to keep current are the risk identification checklist and risk response plan.

Risk identification checklists
Risk identification checklists describe the criteria used to identify new risks. Project team members should use the experience gained during their projects to update the checklists. This will make the checklists more effective for use in the risk management of future projects.

Risk response plans
The risk response plan is a document that describes in detail what actions should be taken in response to specific risks. Since the risk response plan acts as a guide to risk monitoring and control, the project team should update it regularly to keep everyone equally informed.

There are many elements that you can include in updates to risk response plans. Usually updates are the product of an action or event that changes the risk situation of the project. In some cases, the fact that an action was not taken leads to the need for an update. Some of the common elements included in updates to a risk response plan are:

• Implementing risk controls - The implementation of risk controls may reduce the impact or probability of identified risks. Documenting the implemented risk controls will provide the project team with the information it needs to change its future expectations for particular risks.
  
  
• Changing risk rankings - Risk rankings change throughout the project's life cycle. You should document these changes so you and your team can properly control higher ranking risks.
  
  
• Closing risks - Risks that do not occur and that are no longer considered a threat should be documented and closed in the risk response plan.

Updating documentation can help avoid confusion and keep everyone on the project equally informed. The information added to the documentation will help you prepare for similar risks that may occur in future projects.

Processing Project Change Requests

Imagine that your project has just encountered a risk. You have implemented a workaround to control the risk, but the cost of the workaround will affect the project budget. What should you do to ensure that this change is incorporated into the project plan?

When the members of the project team determine that changes must be made to compensate for controlling risks, they issue a project change request. Project change requests are used to recommend changes in project scope, budget, schedule, or quality. There are various types of change requests including oral or written, direct or indirect, externally or internally initiated, and legally mandated or optional.

Regardless of the type of project change being requested, either the person requesting the change or a project team member will have to fill out a project change request form. The form should include the project name, client name, who requested the change, a description of the requested change, the reason for the change, the impact of the change, and whether it is accepted or rejected.

Project change requests are processed using integrated change control. Integrated change control is concerned with maintaining the project scope and the project's integrated performance baseline. Its ultimate goal is to accept or reject project change requests.

Integrated change control is achieved in a series of five steps.

• Step 1: Submit the change request.
  The process is initiated by the submission of a project change request. The person requesting the change, or a project team member, should fill out the project change request form.
  
  
• Step 2: Record the request in the project change request log.
  Once the project manager receives the change request, he records it in the project change request log. This log keeps track of change request submissions and the status of those requests.
  
  
• Step 3: Assess the impact of the proposed change.
  One or more of the project team members must assess the impact that the proposed change will have on the project as a whole. Project changes may affect many project areas, such as the scope, budget, schedule, quality, and objectives.
  
  
• Step 4: Make recommendations whether to accept, reject, or modify the request.
  The people who were in charge of the assessment will make recommendations about whether to accept, reject, or modify the change request. They will base these recommendations on the validity of the request and its impact on the project.
  
  
• Step 5: Decide whether to accept or reject the request.
  The project authority will use the recommendations to decide whether to accept or reject the project change request. Rejected requests will be closed and filed. Accepted requests will be incorporated into the project plan.

Project change requests are processed through the integrated change control process. This process leads your company to make informed decisions on whether or not change requests should be incorporated into the project plan.