Making Process Adjustments and Quality Improvements

Have you ever encountered a situation where something has gone wrong and you wondered what could have been done to prevent it? Process adjustments and quality improvements can address this issue.

Process adjustments
Process adjustments may be corrective or preventive. Corrective adjustments are taken after a problem has already been discovered. Preventive adjustments are taken beforehand to prevent problems from happening.

Some of the most common process adjustments are: rework, redesign, change of equipment, change of personnel, and change of process. To prevent problems from occurring, each process is analyzed to determine where things could go wrong. Preventive steps or processes are then planned into the various activities.

In extreme cases, a process problem may demand rework. Rework requires that the production lot or phase of a project be redone. Obviously, rework should be avoided if possible. However, rework can be planned out conceptually by having inspections, testing, and measuring at logical points in the project or process. This minimizes rework, restricting its use to occasions of absolute necessity.

Another possibility is that a process needs to be redesigned. Projects often have an experimental or trial phase that tests the functioning of an item. This process needs to be planned so that the time exists for redesign, and redesign work is minimized, especially at later stages.

The problem may be the equipment. It could be worn out, outdated or unable to perform to the new designs or specifications demanded of it. Equipment upgrades can be planned into the project or process at various stages. This ensures that the machinery does not wear out and that it will meet future specifications.

Sometimes the problem is with a worker or supervisor. Many employees become bored with their jobs. A worker, supervisor or inspector may not be working as hard as they should be. Perhaps not enough training has been given to employees who need it. Personality conflicts may also be an issue.

Frequent rotation of workers may be desired. Properly scheduling breaks, work hours, vacation, and an understandable promotion system can make a work force more energetic. Refresher training reminds workers of quality issues.

On occasion the process itself may be flawed. Due to employee inexperience, a one-time modification of the process may be required. Plant layouts may need to be updated, efficiency studies undertaken, or adoption of higher forms of technology may be necessary. Annual audits help managers to identify the need for efficiency studies, increased automation, or changes to the process requiring more or less inspection, or testing as appropriate.

Quality Improvements
Quality improvement can occur in two manners. The first and most desirable way is through planned inspections, or audits, of a project or product process. The changes are enacted through a change request. The change request is based upon a well-reasoned and thought out analysis. Unplanned improvement can also occur through corrective action. Too much rework can result in an audit which then decides if a process or procedure needs changing. A change request initiates the improvement.

Both of these methods can address short- and long-term problems to a project or a production process. Consistent and constant attention to quality control is required to remind everyone that quality control can happen at any time.

No one person is solely responsible for quality control. All employees are responsible for identifying potential problems. It should not just be left to the inspectors or quality assurance department to ensure a process is being performed correctly. Interaction is necessary between all the stakeholders in a process or project. This involves the workers, managers, inspectors, engineers, and even the client. No one person can make a change without consideration of all possibilities.

One way to ensure smooth communications between all the stakeholders is to hold frequent meetings of all levels of personnel. This is termed a Quality Circle. Meetings are held frequently where concerns are brought up, ideas discussed, and new methods introduced. The idea is that everyone becomes aware of the others' positions and responsibilities on each issue. Quality improvement ideas are often discussed.

Workers can suggest changes to a process, calibration, or material. They see and do the process on a daily basis. Their suggestions are often preventive in nature. They are also the first line of defense in defect identification.

Managers are responsible for ensuring that the right activities occur at the right time. They can coordinate training, ensure workers and inspectors are doing their jobs, and coordinate with the engineers and clients about problems or changes.

Quality assurance and control is the function of the inspectors. Changes in procedures or processes can be initiated by them or discussion on new methods needed when a problem is identified. Whenever possible, they should act preventively.

Engineers or designers are often asked to study the technical aspects of a problem. They can also suggest the need for a change in process or design based upon new concepts, methods, or technology.

Ultimately, the manager is responsible for change. However, each employee is responsible for understanding the changes and for implementing them. They must also ensure that feedback is accurately conveyed. A progressive attitude by all is required.

Problem identification and resolution takes time. A group may need to meet several times to adjust the process and develop quality improvement ideas. Regardless, process adjustment and quality improvement must be thought of as a continuous process. There is always room for improvement, and prevention is always cheaper than correction.

What Makes a Quality Management Plan Effective?

Have you ever had a problem that required implementing quality control methods, but you didn't know where to start? Proper project development requires a quality management plan to ensure that time and cost objectives and standards are met.

Depending on the needs of the project, a quality management plan can be formal or informal, detailed or broad. The best plans address the three aspects of quality—quality control, quality assurance, and quality improvement—and feature operational definitions as well as any procedures and standards.

Quality control, quality assurance and quality improvement
To provide direction and focus for project plan development, your plan should include details about quality control, quality assurance, and quality improvement measures.

• Quality Control - monitors products for conformance to the quality standards and identifies ways to eliminate substandard work or failures. It requires detailed instructions based on the operational definitions, or measurements, for the project.
• Quality Assurance - audits the organizational structures, responsibilities, procedures and processes of a project to ensure that the quality plan is providing effective feedback.
• Quality Improvement - is the outcome of the quality assurance and quality control processes. A design experiment may be required to determine if there are new operating norms or if the new procedures will work. It may prevent re-occurrences of quality issues.

Operational definitions
Next, your plan must define what needs to be measured. Before the plan can be fully developed, the following operational definitions need to be identified:

• What quality aspects will be measured?
• How will each quality aspect be measured?
• When will each quality aspect be measured?

Defining what needs to be measured can be the hardest part of the operational definition process. The governing rule should be to measure anything that can be variable in nature, whether the item to be measured is a human, a machine, a product, a procedure or process, or the environment.

Most final products require some sort of measurement to ensure conformance to subjective and objective standards. Subjective standards are difficult to measure. How exactly do you measure the aesthetic appeal of flowers? Objective standards require detailed measurements including destruction testing.

Forms can be developed to record objective and subjective measurements. Objective standards include strength, time, cost and measurement criteria. These need explicit data requiring detailed inspection processes and forms. Subjective standards, such as aesthetic standards, are most often measured using checklists with comment sections.

Determining how often to measure quality is another aspect of the operational definition process. Some of the most obvious times to test quality are:

• upon delivery of raw materials - This determines if the supplier is meeting your standards. Items should also be inspected after prolonged storage, especially if they are environmentally or corrosion sensitive. Not every item needs to be inspected. Sampling techniques can be used.
• at end of major stages in a process - It is often cost effective to inspect at the end of a sub- process to ensure substandard material does not progress further. This prevents wasted time, materials, and expensive rework procedures.
• upon changes in operating conditions - An appropriate time to measure is after changes to procedures, processes, machinery settings and human operators. This can take place at different intervals: every few minutes, hourly, each shift, weekly, monthly, or yearly. The time sensitivity of the process determines the frequency.
• upon completion of job lots - Many products are often produced in lots, partly as a function of the inputs process, but also as a function of testing and tracking of outputs. It is cheaper to throw out a small lot than an entire day's production run.

Ultimately, deciding when and how often to measure quality is a cost versus quality issue. Every item or stage of a project could be inspected, but the inspection costs may outweigh the final value.

Procedures and standards
The final component of a sound quality management plan involves procedures and checklists. Quality processes and standards should become routine and may be taught and enforced through procedures in the form of checklists.

Checklists confirm whether quality control standards have been followed. They can be instructive by outlining what needs to be done by saying, "Do Y." Process checklists also ensure certain tasks have been done by asking, "Has X been completed?" In some processes or projects, inspection checklists can gather data on the number of times tasks have or have not been performed adequately.

Checklists ensure that process steps are not overlooked or forgotten. They also ensure that the product does not advance to the next process before necessary tasks are done. This prevents costly rework if changes are required.

In some cases, companies perform work to certain external standards as expressed in governmental or association regulations or guidelines. If this is the case with your project, you can develop checklists which include standards.

Project quality is only as good as the quality management plan. To ensure project quality, the plan must be well thought out and rehearsed. Project quality can be ensured by a complete understanding of: quality control, quality assurance and quality improvement; operational definitions; and checklists and standards.

Implementing Quality Improvement Efforts

Sometimes organizations become lost when they implement quality improvement efforts. Applying solutions to quality problems requires a clear and direct route. In most cases, realizing quality improvements involves setting up change requests and taking corrective action.

Change requests are documented records of changes that happen to improve the quality of a project. Change requests can occur in many ways. They can be:

• oral or written
• direct or indirect
• externally or internally initiated
• legally directed or optional.

Realizing quality improvements also can involve taking corrective action. This process requires aligning the expected project performances with the project plan. This will help ensure that the project is meeting the requirements of the stakeholders.
Corrective action occurs when rework is required during a project. However, it does more than just fix a problem. It also can help you discover the root cause of the problem and prevent reoccurrence.

To handle change requests and corrective action, you must follow certain procedures. Most quality improvements for project management are implemented according to procedures for integrated change control.

This process coordinates changes across entire projects. There are three main characteristics for integrated change control.

1. Influence the factors that generate change to guarantee that changes are valuable.
Not all changes are valuable. During brainstorming sessions, plan quality improvement efforts that focus on factors that generate change.

2. Establish that a change has taken place.
Keeping an accurate paper trail of all changes helps managers establish that change has taken place. In addition, managers should reexamine their processes to ensure that any changes are maintained.

3. Handle the changes when and as they occur.
Learn to manage quality improvement changes as they occur. Managers should understand that possible schedule changes also will influence the cost, risk, quality, and staffing areas of a project.

Remember, quality improvement doesn't just happen. It includes taking corrective action and preparing change requests that are managed according to integrated change control. These procedures can help make quality a reality for your project.

The Evolution of Project Quality

The view of quality has changed dramatically over the past 100 years. Do you know how companies managed the quality of their products and services that long ago?

Project quality has evolved over time, from sorting good items from bad items, to strategic quality management. Quality was once the responsibility of the Quality Inspector. Now it's everyone's responsibility. Details about the quality time line are provided below.

• Prior to World War I, companies stressed the importance of inspections. Problems were identified, not prevented. In the 1950s, inspections were still emphasized. However, quality control emerged as statistical and mathematical techniques.
• From the 1950s to the late 1960s, quality assurance was developed for project management. Companies took steps to prevent problems from occurring, instead of reacting to problems once they were detected.
• Presently, management teams emphasize strategic quality management. Quality is characterized by the customer's demands and requires the commitment of an entire organization. All levels of an organization must be accountable for the products and services it offers. Quality is a weapon that is used against competitors.

Today, quality begins during the initiation of a project, and must be planned, assured, and controlled within that project. The driving force behind higher levels of quality comes from the demands of customers. Total Quality Management (TQM) is a present-day management system that responds to these demands.
TQM has contributed significantly to the movement toward improved quality. It is a customer-oriented system that can also reduce internal bottlenecks and operating costs. This system boosts organizational morale and increases product quality at the same time.

Quality has reached present-day levels as a result of the contributions of experts in the field of project management. In particular, two influential contributors to the quality movement are W. Edwards Deming and Joseph M. Juran.

W. Edwards Deming believed that 85 percent of quality problems required changing the processes within a company. He thought the roots of quality problems should be identified and eliminated. To help organizations identify the roots of quality problems, he developed the Deming's Cycle for Improvement.

Deming believed that problem solving should be logical and systematic. Deming's Cycle for Improvement, which involves the four steps described below, enables organizations to locate and eliminate the source of a problem, rather than simply eliminating the symptoms of a problem.

• Plan. The first step involves identifying the problem and establishing priorities. During this step a quality improvement team is formed, and the problem is defined and analyzed. Possible causes for the problem are determined, as well as possible solutions.
• Do. During the "do" stage, a solution to the problem is selected and implemented.
• Study. The study stage involves evaluating the solution.
• Act. Finally, the last stage ensures that the new procedure and controls are maintained. Project teams ensure that continuous improvement occurs.

Joseph M. Juran believed that quality for manufacturers meant adhering to specifications, and quality for customers depended on "fitness for use," which involves five characteristics: quality of design, quality of conformance, safety, use by the customer, and availability.
Juran also discussed the cost of quality and the legal implications of quality. He examined the various grades of quality for products and services. Juran developed 10 steps for quality improvement that can be applied to project management. The 10 steps are:

• promote the need for improvement
• establish goals for improvement
• organize a plan to attain the goals
• provide training
• perform projects to solve problems
• give an account of the progress that is made
• provide recognition
• communicate results
• keep score
• make improvement part of the process.

The way organizations and customers view quality has changed over time. Today, it is understood that problem solving is an important aspect of quality improvement.

Performing Quality Audits

Quality audits are controlled reviews of quality management activities for a project. They are useful for establishing any inconsistencies between actual performances and preferred standards. You can use them to examine a small portion of a process or look at a complete organization. As a general rule, there are four forms of quality audits.

• Product audit. Product audits reexamine a finished product. This process is usually performed before the purchaser accepts the finished product. These inspections involve verifying that physical attributes conform with standards.
• Process audit. Process audits generally take a short period of time to perform, as they examine only a selected portion of the total process. They verify that processes, operators, and equipment conform to distinct requirements. They prove that a process is being used.
• System audit. System audits examine the overall organization. When they are completed internally, they examine the management practices within a company. This type of audit evaluates a system to prove that a company is following it properly.
• Vendor survey. Vendor surveys are often part of an external system audit. They involve looking at a vendor's management of quality efforts in relation to the expected contractual requirements.

Quality audits verify conformance to specifications and procedures. They provide necessary information about performance, products, and areas for improvement. They also help companies to survive, help companies conform to regulations, and help counteract the actions of others.

Quality is a vital factor for surviving in a competitive market. Companies that provide products or services more efficiently will usually win business over their competitors. It is imperative that you know how well, or how poorly, your company is performing. Quality audits offer this much-needed information.

Another reason to perform quality audits is to implement and maintain the regulations that are necessary for you to operate a business. Many of these regulations are in the form of licenses or certifications for meeting quality standards and maintenance of preferred supplier status with customers.

Quality audits also are helpful for counteracting the organizations that are looking for your mistakes. Audits show that you are monitoring your company's performance. The purpose of a quality audit is to discover problems when they are relatively small. When outside organizations can see that you have a sound quality system, they are more likely to leave your company alone.

When should audits be scheduled? Most times, they are part of a contract agreement with a customer or initiated from government regulations. Sometimes quality audits are scheduled and other times they are performed randomly. When audits are scheduled, they should be at times when activities can actually be observed, rather than times when only the documentation on those activities can be examined.

It's important that audits be unbiased and objective. The audit team can consist of members of the quality assurance department, the management team, or outside organizations. Audits should never be carried out by the performer of the audited activity.

Audit teams should be comprised of two to six individuals. The ideal quality audit team is comprised of members of all departments within an organization.

Audit teams should be polite and professional. They should ensure projects meet their quality requirements and follow quality procedures and policies. An effective audit team will perform the audit process in four sequential phases, which are described below.

• Preparation. In the preparation phase, the audit team is selected. Auditors define the purpose and scope of the audit and pinpoint the performance standards and resources. They contact the auditee and develop checklists. They also become familiar with the control systems.
• Performance. In the performance phase, the auditors meet with the auditee. They gather and analyze information by conducting interviews and examining records. They verify the control system in this phase.
• Reporting. In the reporting phase of an audit, an exit meeting is held with the auditee. Also, the formal audit report, containing the conclusions of the audit, is written at this time.
• Closure. The closure phase is sometimes referred to as corrective action. This phase is characterized by actions resulting from the audit observations. Follow-up actions are monitored and evaluated at this time.

Remember, scheduling quality audits can help you learn important information about your organization. It will also help your company stand the test of time.

Design of Experiments and Quality Assurance

Why would a project quality team design an experiment? Design of experiments is an analytical technique for project quality assurance that helps project managers determine which variables have the most effect on an outcome. It can help you determine the capability of a material, process, or product.

Your project can be improved with experiments that test new ideas and possibilities. Designed experiments are helpful in solving chronic quality problems. Properly designed experiments can:

• reduce rework
• improve productivity
• increase customer satisfaction
• prevent problems
• reduce the need for extra inspections.

Companies strive for efficiency in most areas. After all, companies that have efficient processes while still maintaining a high level of quality are usually the companies that are best-in-their-class.

Design of experiments is a more efficient and less disruptive experimentation process than most trial method experiments. It requires extra thought and planning. However, it is worth the time and effort put into it.

This technique for quality assurance is beneficial for many company types and is most often used for projects that produce a product. Companies and their project managers usually choose to use this technique for the following reasons.

• It requires smaller sample sizes to receive the same accuracy of results.
• It determines interactions between process variables.
• It tests more variables at one time, making this process more efficient.

Design of experiments is a quality assurance technique that verifies how materials, products, or processes affect your project. It is useful for solving chronic quality problems because it tests new ideas and possibilities.

Benefit/Cost Analysis and Quality Assurance

When are the added costs of a project worth the expense? Weighing the benefits against the costs is something every project manager must do.

When it comes to quality assurance, performing a benefit/cost analysis can help with major decision-making issues of a project. You can use this quality assurance technique when assessing the procedures your company uses, so you can develop the level of products and services customers demand.

A benefit/cost analysis entails estimating the benefits and costs of meeting quality requirements, and then assessing the available project options. The main reasons for using benefit/cost analysis to determine project quality requirements are that this technique can result in:

• less rework
• higher productivity
• lower overall project costs
• improved customer satisfaction.

When using a benefit/cost analysis to help with decision making, you should keep in mind that it's really as simple as this—the benefits should outweigh the costs. The calculated difference of subtracting the costs from the benefits should be a positive number. The procedure for analyzing benefits and costs for quality assurance are listed below.

• Analyze the plan, decision, or process by examining its activities and events.
• Calculate or estimate the benefits and costs related to each element.
• Subtract the costs from the benefits.

Benefit/cost analysis is a valuable tool that can help you determine if benefits outweigh costs. Ultimately, it can help you make important decisions relating to project quality assurance.

Flowcharting for Project Quality Assurance

It's usually beneficial to approach project problems in new ways. One effective technique you can use when addressing problems related to project quality assurance is flowcharting. You can use this method of problem solving to visually map the process or problem in question.

Flowcharts graphically represent processes and activities. They can help you identify the source of specific problems, which will enable you to find solutions. In addition, they can make communication about problems easier, help you discipline your thinking, and show how different elements fit together.

You can use two types of flowcharts for quality assurance purposes—the cause-and-effect diagram, and the process flowchart. Details about these two types of flowcharts are provided below.

1. Cause-and-effect diagrams
For every quality-related effect or problem in a project, a cause must be identified. Cause-and-effect diagrams can help you establish a cause, whether it is a problem or a desirable result an organization has found and wants to reproduce. These diagrams are also called fish-bone diagrams, because they resemble a fishbone with branches slanting off a main "spine."

When causes are established, they are categorized according to type. Cause types can include such things as materials, machines, people, and information. They are represented with a branch on the fishbone diagram. All subcauses connect to these branches.

Cause-and-effect diagrams are useful in brainstorming sessions because they act as visual displays for dividing large problems into manageable parts. Listed below are the four steps for constructing a cause-and-effect diagram.

• Identify the problem or effect. To identify the problem or effect, place a concise statement of the problem in a box at the end of a horizontal line.
• Identify the causes. Next, in a brainstorming session, identify any causes for the problem. Focus discussions on one cause at a time. Possible subcauses are identified at this time as well.
• Build the diagram. In the third step, build the diagram. To do this, organize the causes and subcauses into the diagram layout. Each branch should represent a cause-type, such as materials, machines, and information. Connect subcauses to these branches.
• Analyze the diagram. Finally, analyze the diagram. Identify the logical solutions by considering whether each solution is achievable.

2. Process flowcharts
Flowcharts also indicate what is done throughout a process, from one step to another. On these process flowcharts, information about a process is placed inside or beside an appropriate symbol.

With some training, anyone on a quality improvement team can draw a process flowchart. However, everyone should clearly understand the meaning of each symbol used on the flowchart, including the symbols for Operation (a rectangle), Movement/Transportation (an arrow), Decision Point (a diamond), Inspection (a large circle), Paper Documents and Delay (both specialized rectangular symbols), Boundary (an oval), and Connector (a small circle).

To create a process flowchart, you draw a picture of the process. With some training and practice, flowcharting can be a straightforward process. Follow the steps listed below to complete this task.

• Define the process steps. First, you should identify the steps in a process by holding a brainstorming session and letting everyone on the team provide input.
• Sort the steps in order. Next, identify what is done at each step and then sort the steps in order.
• Place the steps in the appropriate symbols. The third step involves placing each step in the appropriate symbol. Use standard symbols to sketch the flowchart.
• Evaluate the steps. Finally, reevaluate the steps. This will ensure that the process is complete, efficient, and free of problems. Be sure to review the actual process and then make any necessary revisions to the flowchart.

Flowcharts are effective tools for enhancing the quality assurance of a project, as they graphically represent processes and activities. They can help you identify the cause of a problem or effect, and identify problems in a process.

Benchmarking for Project Quality Assurance

Why would one company want to investigate another company? The main reason for investigating another company is to gather information to use in developing your company's goals and effective processes. This investigation is called a benchmarking process (BMP).

Performing a BMP can help you know your company better and understand your competition. Benchmarking compares the performance of one company against another that is best-in-its-class. This involves a thorough examination and understanding of processes, products, or performances.

The BMP also provides information about where a company stands when compared to standards that are set by customers, companies, certification organizations, and industry associations.

The BMP will indicate the areas of strength within a company and uncover opportunities for improvement. First, the BMP examines a company's own processes. This will reveal which ones are the best. In addition, examining the processes of another company can help you identify the areas in your own company that need improvement.

Performing a BMP will identify your competitive position. Although there are costs involved with this process, the benefits of performing a BMP will far outweigh the costs or efforts involved. There are four common types of benchmarking assessments you can perform.

• Internal. This is usually the first BMP to take place for most companies. For this BMP, a company examines it own organization to find the best practices. It's an easy BMP to carry out, as security issues do not exist.
• Competitive. This BMP type is also called reverse engineering. It involves studying the services, products, and processes of a company's competitors. One way to perform this type of BMP is to buy and analyze the competitor's product.
• World-class operations. To perform this type of BMP, a company examines an organization in an industry related to its own. This technique can reveal innovative processes not currently used by the company.
• Activity-type. This type of benchmarking examines a specific process activity in an industry different from its own. You can use this BMP type to study many activities, such as recruiting and invoicing.

Customer satisfaction is a top project goal. Performing a BMP can support a company's desire to improve and change, and ultimately improve the level of satisfaction of its customers. There are six separate stages for every BMP. These six stages are described below.

• Process design (planning). In the first stage, you should decide which quality process will be benchmarked. Then determine the measurements that will be used to perform the BMP.
• Internal data collection. The second stage involves learning your company's own practices and performances. This can be done using such techniques as system and process flowcharts, and cause-and-effect diagrams.
• External data collection. In the third stage, select a competitor that is best-in-its-class, and collect data about that company. For world-class or activity-type benchmarking, use a company in a different industry.
• Data analysis. Next, compare the information you've gathered with the information you've learned about your company's own practices and performances.
• Process upgrading. Based on the information you've learned about your competitor, identify which ideas will be adopted for your own processes and decide how to implement them.
• Periodic reassessment. Finally, monitor the effectiveness of the new ideas and make plans to re-benchmark them after a specific interval of time.

Benchmarking is like an investigation. Organizations perform BMPs to set goals and develop effective processes. There are four types of benchmarking assessments a company can perform: internal, competitive, world-class operations, and activity-type. In doing each type, there are six steps to follow. Knowing these steps will help you identify and improve your company's competitive position.

Results of Quality Control Measurements

Results of quality control measurements are inputs to project quality assurance. These results are the testing and measurement records of quality control, and include acceptance decisions, rework, and process adjustments.

From a quality assurance perspective, you can use the results of quality control measurements for comparison and analysis purposes. Specifically, you can compare the results found with the expected results of the product or process, pinpoint exactly where non-conformities took place, and examine the reasons for non-conformities. Details about these important inputs to project quality assurance are provided below.

1. Acceptance decisions
How many work-related decisions do you make in one day? The number is likely to be much higher than you realize. Throughout the duration of a project, the number of quality issues that require a decision may seem endless.

One type of quality assurance decision is an acceptance decision. This results from an inspection of a process stage, or a final product or service. The acceptance decision is simply this—the item will either be accepted or rejected.

2. Rework
When an item or process is rejected as the result of an acceptance decision, it may require rework. The purpose of rework is to make non-conforming or defective items or processes meet requirements or specifications. Companies try to minimize the need for rework, as it causes projects to miss deadlines and budgets.

3. Process adjustments
Immediate corrective or preventative action should take place when rework is required as the result of an acceptance decision. This course of action is called a process adjustment.

The changes that are made as a result of a process adjustment will help prevent the defect from occurring in the future. More details about process adjustments are provided below.

• Find the source of the problem. Process adjustments involve more than fixing non-conformities. They include discovering the source of the problem itself.
• Take corrective action. Process adjustments may be small adjustments, or major undertakings, depending on the nature of the problem.

The results of quality control measurements are acceptance decisions, rework, and process adjustments. These quality assurance inputs are an important part of discovering the reasons behind non-conforming projects or processes.

Developing a Quality Management Plan

Implementing effective quality management for your project takes a great deal of organization. Developing a quality management plan and applying it to a project will help ensure that effective quality management has taken place.

A quality management plan is a document that details the quality practices and activities of a product or service. It is a part of an organization's quality system and should include the responsibilities, procedures, processes, organizational structure, and resources required to implement effective quality management.

Created by the project manager and the project team members, it should describe how a quality policy will be carried out and detail the project objectives by breaking down the project activities into lower-level activities. It should also identify specific quality actions.

Quality management plans can take on many forms. They can be formal, informal, detailed, or general, depending on the needs of each particular project. They can also be represented in many ways visually. For example, a plan can be displayed as a tree-like diagram.

A new plan should be developed, or old plans should be changed to reflect the different activities of each unique project. A quality management plan does not stand completely alone—it becomes a part of the overall project plan.

Project quality can be described as meeting or exceeding customer requirements. This means customers should have input into the quality of the project. Remember, the bottom line to any project is satisfying the customers. Without them, there are no future projects.

Effective quality management plans play an important role in this process of satisfying customers. The characteristics of good quality management plans are as follows.

• They should identify customers.
• They should prove that goals and objectives are being met.
• They should affect the design of a process that meets the ever-changing needs of customers.
• They should enable the company to bring in suppliers early in the process.

It is the responsibility of the project manager to make certain that the project's quality actions are thoroughly documented. This process will enable the company to prove that it has the right processes in place to meet the needs of its customers.

Sustaining a quality system and creating a quality management plan requires a great deal of effort, planning, and organization. The following is a list of the high-level steps in the process of creating a quality management plan.

1. State all measurable features of the project's product.

2. Identify how the product will be produced and its quality measured against specifications.

3. Determine how the project approach will be measured.

4. Conduct a quality risk assessment and develop non-conformance procedures.

5. State the method for quality reporting and monitoring.

6. Outline the formal acceptance criteria and document the project's final product.

In summary, quality management plans are documents that describe the quality practices, resources, and sequence of activities related to a specific service or product. They act as a guide for satisfying the customers' needs.

The Project Quality Management Plan

A quality management plan, which is an output of the project quality planning process, is a document that describes how a quality policy will be implemented. Quality improvement, quality control, and quality assurance are addressed in quality management plans. These plans usually are created by project management teams and project managers and are integrated into the overall project plan.

A quality plan acts as a road map to meeting customers' needs by breaking down the project objectives into lower-level activities. This process should identify specific quality actions.

Quality management plans are drawn up for specific products, individual projects, or highly complicated tasks. A new plan should be developed or changed to reflect the different activities of each project.

In contract situations, a quality plan is sometimes used by the supplier to show the customer how the project will meet quality requirements. In many cases, it's helpful to have the customer's input into the quality management plan.

Quality management plans take on different forms. They can be formal, informal, detailed, or general, depending on the needs of each particular project.

Quality plans ensure the proper documentation for a project is complete. They prove that quality goals are being met. An effective quality plan can also:

• identify all internal or external customers
• respond to the ever-changing needs of customers
• bring in the suppliers early in the project
• cause the process to be designed in a way that produces features that meet customer requirements.

Quality management plans and other aspects of quality planning require attention to detail. When defining quality, the term can mean different things to different people. Attention to detail helps ensure everyone's requirements for quality are met.

Outputs of Project Quality Planning

The project quality planning process results in a number of outputs, in the form of actual documents or documented items. Operational definitions, checklists, and inputs to other processes are three important outputs of the quality planning process. Details about these three outputs are provided below.

1. Operational definition
An operational definition, also called a metric in some application areas, is a description of what something is and how it is measured by the quality control process. Operational definitions are quality planning outputs project management teams can use to indicate the specifics about the quality of their projects.

For example, an operational definition that describes meeting schedule deadlines must also include details such as start and finish times for every activity.

2. Checklists
Quality planning, and any other activity involving steps to a process, use checklists. Checklists are structured tools for confirming that all steps to a process have been performed. They can be specific to particular activities and industries. Checklists are not always complicated. They can be as simple as a brief list phrased, "Do this!"

Checklists are important for quality planning because they help you verify a project's quality. You can use information from quality planning inputs, as well as quality planning tools and techniques, to develop the checklists for a project.

Some organizations have standardized checklists that ensure frequently performed activities are carried out with consistency. Alternatively, sometimes checklists are purchased from commercial service providers or professional associations.

3. Inputs to other processes
Sometimes the process of quality planning detects a need for activity in another project management area. These quality planning outputs are usually not anticipated at the onset of a project. These unanticipated outputs are called inputs to other processes.

In summary, inputs to quality planning, as well as quality planning tools and techniques, result in a number of outputs. These quality planning outputs help management teams stay focused on the quality details of a project.

Project Quality Planning Tools: Benchmarking

Did you know that project management can be similar to detective work? The benchmarking process (BMP) is like an investigation. It involves searching through available clues, finding leads, and then following up on those leads to understand the processes of world-class companies.

The BMP compares the performance of one company against another that is best-in-its-class. This is an effective tool and technique for quality planning.

Why should you perform a BMP? There are two main reasons for benchmarking—setting goals and process development. The BMP also will help you to know yourself, understand your competition, and define and integrate the best processes into your organization.

The benefits of benchmarking far outweigh the costs or effort involved. Benchmarking will:

• improve customer satisfaction
• define the best processes
• improve already-existing processes
• promote a desire to improve and change
• identify your competitive position
• improve the relationship between benchmarking partners.

The BMP provides information about where a company stands when compared to standards. These standards are set by customers, companies, certification organizations, and industry associations. The BMP will indicate the areas of strength within a company and uncover opportunities for improvement.

There are four common types of benchmarking assessments: internal, competitive, world-class operations, and activity-type benchmarking. Details are provided below.

• Internal benchmarking. This type of benchmarking usually takes place first. It involves examining your own organization and determining the best practices observed. It's easy to carry out, and matters of security and confidentiality do not exist.
• Competitive benchmarking. This is also called reverse engineering. It involves studying a competitor's services, products, and processes. The easiest way to do this type of benchmarking is to buy the competitor's product or service and then analyze it.
• World-class operations benchmarking. This benchmarking type takes the BMP past a specific type of organization to one that is different. It's a useful technique for discovering innovative processes not currently used by an organization.
• Activity-type benchmarking. This type of benchmarking examines specific process steps or activities that go beyond specific industries. It includes activities such as recruiting, invoicing, and engineering change control.

The benchmarking process is a useful tool and technique for quality planning. It's natural that companies want to immediately visit a top-notch organization as their first BMP activity. Although doing this is a part of the BMP, it's not the only activity that should be performed. There are six separate stages for every BMP.

• Process design (planning). Select one quality process to study at a time. Form a team of people involved in the process you wish to study. Determine the measurements you will use.
• Internal data collection. Know your own practices and performance. This can be done using such techniques as system and process flowcharts, or cause-and-effect diagrams.
• External data collection. Select a competitor in the same or different industry as your company. Select one that is best-in-its-class for the process you are studying.
• Data analysis. Compare the information gathered with the information from your own company.
• Process upgrading. Based on information you have learned from your competitor, identify which ideas can be adopted for your own process and decide how they can be implemented.
• Periodic reassessment. Monitor the effectiveness of the new ideas and re-benchmark them at specific intervals of time.

Effective benchmarking requires choosing the specific benchmarking type and completing the appropriate steps. This process is not just about uncovering the secrets of your competition—it includes learning about yourself.

Monitoring IT Project Quality

Theodore Rubin once said, "The problem is not that there are problems. The problem is expecting otherwise, and thinking that having problems is a problem."

In IT project management, you need to prepare for possible problems and implement processes that will help you determine whether your project is producing quality results. The purpose of quality in project management is to ensure that the project accomplishes what it set out to do, despite any problems that may occur.

There are a number of international organizations that provide valuable information on the use of quality standards in project management. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), one of these organizations, defines quality as "the totality of characteristics of an entity that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs."

There are three main processes that can help you monitor your project for quality and potential problem areas. The processes are quality planning, quality assurance, and quality control. Although these processes overlap, they each have their own particular role to fulfill in IT project management.

1. Quality planning
Quality planning is useful for identifying which quality standards are needed for the project, and ensuring those standards are achieved. In an IT project, quality planning could involve considerations for system growth, or making sure that consistent and concise information is being created.

The design of experiments is an instrument used in quality planning to determine which variables will have the most effect on the outcome of a process. You can use this instrument for determining cost and schedule trade-offs.

2. Quality assurance
The quality assurance process is used for evaluating the quality standards that have been previously identified during the quality planning process, and also at various stages throughout the project. Quality assurance will help to ensure that these standards will meet the needs of the project.

Benchmarking, an example of quality assurance, is used to determine the best ways to improve quality by doing comparisons to other projects in an attempt to meet or beat that level of quality.

3. Quality control
The quality control process is useful for observing project results to ensure they meet the standards you've set. You use the observations to improve the overall quality of the project.

The quality control process helps you determine whether products or services will be rejected or accepted. If rejected, it will be necessary to rework the product or service to meet requirements or specifications. If rejection occurs and rework is necessary, the team should make adjustments to the process to prevent future quality problems.

The Pareto Analysis/Diagram is a tool implemented during the quality control process to analyze and graphically display historical data for specific problems in a project.

Remember, by carefully implementing the quality management processes described above, your team can ensure quality in all of its IT projects.